Internet DRAFT - draft-dekater-scion-controlplane
draft-dekater-scion-controlplane
Network Working Group C. de Kater
Internet-Draft N. Rustignoli
Intended status: Informational SCION Association
Expires: 5 September 2024 S. Hitz
Anapaya Systems
4 March 2024
SCION Control Plane
draft-dekater-scion-controlplane-03
Abstract
This document describes the control plane of the path-aware, inter-
domain network architecture SCION (Scalability, Control, and
Isolation On Next-generation networks). One of the basic
characteristics of SCION is that it gives path control to SCION-
capable endpoints. In fact, endpoints can choose between multiple
path options, enabling the optimization of network paths. The SCION
control plane is responsible for discovering these paths and making
them available to the endpoints.
The main goal of SCION's control plane is to create and manage path
segments, which can then be combined into forwarding paths to
transmit packets in the data plane. This document first discusses
how path exploration is realized through beaconing and how path
segments are created and registered. Each SCION autonomous system
(AS) can register segments according to its own policy - it is free
to specify which path properties and algorithm(s) to use in the
selection procedure. The document then describes the path lookup
process, where endpoints obtain path segments - a fundamental
building block for the construction of end-to-end paths.
About This Document
This note is to be removed before publishing as an RFC.
The latest revision of this draft can be found at
https://scionassociation.github.io/scion-cp_I-D/draft-dekater-scion-
controlplane.html. Status information for this document may be found
at https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/draft-dekater-scion-
controlplane/.
Source for this draft and an issue tracker can be found at
https://github.com/scionassociation/scion-cp_I-D.
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Copyright (c) 2024 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the
document authors. All rights reserved.
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Table of Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1. Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2. Conventions and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3. Paths and Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4. Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.1. Path Segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5. Addressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5.1. ISD Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5.2. SCION AS Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5.3. Wildcard Addressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6. Avoiding Circular Dependencies and Partitioning . . . . . 13
1.6.1. Partition and Healing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.7. Communication Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2. Path Exploration or Beaconing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.1. Introduction and Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.1.1. Peering Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.2. Extending a PCB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.3. PCB Propagation - Illustrated Examples . . . . . . . 16
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2.2. Path-Segment Construction Beacons (PCBs) . . . . . . . . 21
2.2.1. Components of a PCB in Message Format . . . . . . . . 21
2.2.2. PCB Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3. Propagation of PCBs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.3.1. Selection of PCBs to Propagate . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.3.2. Propagation of Selected PCBs . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3. Registration of Path Segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.1. Intra-ISD Path-Segment Registration . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.1.1. Terminating a PCB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.1.2. Transforming a PCB into an Up-Segment . . . . . . . . 42
3.1.3. Transforming a PCB into a Down-Segment . . . . . . . 42
3.2. Core Path-Segment Registration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.3. Path-Segment Registration on Code-Level . . . . . . . . . 44
4. Path Lookup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.1. Lookup Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.1.1. Sequence of Lookup Requests . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.1.2. Caching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.2. Behavior of Actors in the Lookup Process . . . . . . . . 47
4.2.1. Use of Wildcard Addresses in the Lookup Process . . . 47
4.2.2. Segment-Request Handler of a Non-Core Source AS . . . 48
4.2.3. Segment-Request Handler of a Core AS . . . . . . . . 49
5. Security Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.1. Manipulation of the Beaconing Process by a Core
Adversary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.2. Manipulation of the Beaconing Process by a Non-Core
Adversary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.2.1. Path Hijacking through Interposition . . . . . . . . 51
5.2.2. Creation of Spurious ASes and ISDs . . . . . . . . . 51
5.2.3. Peering Link Misuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.2.4. Manipulation of the Path-Selection Process . . . . . 52
5.3. Denial of Service Attacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6. IANA Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.1. Normative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.2. Informative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
PCB Protobuf Messages - Full Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Path-Lookup Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Authors' Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
1. Introduction
The SCION control plane is responsible for discovering path segments
and making them available to endpoints. This process includes path
exploration, registration, and lookup. This section explains the
basic concepts of the control plane in SCION and introduces SCION's
routing concept.
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As SCION is an _inter-domain_ network architecture, it only deals
with _inter_-domain routing. One feature of SCION is the decoupling
of inter-domain routing from endpoint addressing. This Introduction
section provides a description of the SCION addressing system in more
detail.
*Note:* It is assumed that readers of this draft are familiar with
the basic concepts of the SCION next-generation inter-domain network
architecture. If not, please find more detailed information in the
IETF Internet Drafts [I-D.scion-overview], [I-D.scion-components],
[I-D.scion-dp], and [I-D.scion-cppki], as well as in [CHUAT22],
especially Chapter 2. A short description of the SCION basic terms
and elements can be found in Section 1.1 below.
1.1. Terminology
*Autonomous System (AS)*: An autonomous system is a network under a
common administrative control. For example, the network of an
Internet service provider, company, or university can constitute an
AS.
*Beaconing*: The control-plane process where an AS discovers paths to
other ASes.
*Control Plane*: The SCION control plane is responsible for the
propagation and discovery of network paths, i.e., for the exchange of
routing information between network nodes. The control plane thus
determines where traffic can be sent and deals with questions such as
how paths are discovered, which paths exist, what quality individual
links offer, etc. Within a SCION AS, such functionalities are
carried out by the control service. Packet forwarding is instead a
task pertaining to the data plane.
*Control Service*: The control service is the main control-plane
infrastructure component within a SCION AS. It is responsible for
the path exploration and registration processes that take place
within the control plane.
*Core AS*: Each isolation domain (ISD) is administered by a set of
distinguished autonomous systems (ASes) called core ASes, which are
responsible for initiating the path-discovery and -construction
process (in SCION called "beaconing").
*Endpoint*: An endpoint is the start- or the endpoint of a SCION
path. For example, an endpoint can be a host as defined in
[RFC1122], or a gateway bridging a SCION and an IP domain. This
definition is based on the definition in [RFC9473].
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*Forwarding Path*: A forwarding path is a complete end-to-end path
between two SCION hosts, which is used to transmit packets in the
data plane and can be created with a combination of up to three path
segments (an up-segment, a core-segment, and a down-segment).
*Hop Field (HF)*: As they traverse the network, path-segment
construction beacons (PCBs) accumulate cryptographically protected
AS-level path information in the form of hop fields. In the data
plane, hop fields are used for packet forwarding: they contain the
incoming and outgoing interface IDs of the ASes on the forwarding
path.
*Info Field (INF)*: Each path-segment construction beacon (PCB)
contains a single info field, which provides basic information about
the PCB. Together with hop fields (HFs), info fields are used to
create forwarding paths.
*Isolation Domain (ISD)*: In SCION, autonomous systems (ASes) are
organized into logical groups called isolation domains or ISDs. Each
ISD consists of ASes that span an area with a uniform trust
environment (i.e., a common jurisdiction). A possible model is for
ISDs to be formed along national boundaries or federations of
nations.
*Leaf AS*: An AS at the "edge" of an ISD, with no other downstream
ASes.
*MAC*: Message Authentication Code. In the rest of this document,
"MAC" always refers to "Message Authentication Code" and never to
"Medium Access Control". When "Medium Access Control address" is
implied, the phrase "Link Layer Address" is used.
*Packet-Carried Forwarding State (PCFS)*: Rather than relying on
costly inter-domain forwarding tables, SCION data packets contain all
the necessary path information. We refer to this property as packet-
carried forwarding state or PCFS.
*Path Segment*: Path segments are derived from path-segment
construction beacons (PCBs) and registered at control services. A
path segment can be (1) an up-segment (i.e., a path between a non-
core AS and a core AS in the same ISD), (2) a down-segment (i.e., the
same as an up-segment, but in the opposite direction), or (3) a core-
segment (i.e., a path between core ASes). Up to three path segments
can be used to create a forwarding path.
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*Path-Segment Construction Beacon (PCB)*: Core ASes generate PCBs to
explore paths within their isolation domain (ISD) and among different
ISDs. ASes further propagate selected PCBs to their neighboring
ASes. As a PCB traverses the network, it carries path segments,
which can subsequently be used for traffic forwarding.
*Trust Root Configuration (TRC)*: A trust root configuration or TRC
is a signed collection of certificates pertaining to an isolation
domain (ISD). TRCs also contain ISD-specific policies.
1.2. Conventions and Definitions
The key words "MUST", "MUST NOT", "REQUIRED", "SHALL", "SHALL NOT",
"SHOULD", "SHOULD NOT", "RECOMMENDED", "NOT RECOMMENDED", "MAY", and
"OPTIONAL" in this document are to be interpreted as described in
BCP 14 [RFC2119] [RFC8174] when, and only when, they appear in all
capitals, as shown here.
1.3. Paths and Links
SCION routers and endpoints connect to each other via links. A SCION
path between two endpoints essentially traverses one or more links.
In SCION, autonomous systems (ASes) are organized into logical groups
called isolation domains or ISDs. Each ISD consists of ASes that
span an area with a uniform trust environment (i.e., a common
jurisdiction). An ISD is administered by a set of distinguished ASes
called core ASes. Within and between ISDs, SCION supports three
types of links: (1) core links, (2) parent-child links, and (3)
peering links.
* A _core_ link always connects two core ASes, which are either
within the same or in a different ISD. Core links can exist for
various underlying business relationships, including provider-
customer (where the customer pays the provider for traffic) and
peering relationships.
* _Parent-child_ links create a hierarchy between the parent and the
child. ASes with a parent-child link typically have a provider-
customer relationship.
* _Peering_ links exist between ASes with a (settlement-free or
paid) peering relationship. Peering links can only be used to
reach destinations within or downstream of the peering AS. They
can be established between any two core or non-core ASes, and
between core and non-core ASes. Peering links can also cross ISD
boundaries.
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The following figure shows the three types of links for one small ISD
with the two core ASes A and C, and the four non-core ASes D,E,F, and
G.
+-------------------------+
| | #
| ISD Core | | parent-child
| .---. .---. | | link
| ( A )*-------*( C ) | |
| `-#-' `-#-' | 0
| | | |
+----|---------------|----+ *-------* core link
| |
| | < - - - > peering link
.-0-. .-0-.
( D )< - - - >( E )
`-#-' `-#-'
| |
| |
| |
.-0-. .-0-.
( G ) ( F )
`---' `---'
Figure 1: The three types of SCION links in one ISD
Each link connecting SCION routers is bidirectional and identified by
its corresponding egress and ingress interface IDs. These interface
IDs only need to be unique within each AS. Therefore, they can be
chosen and encoded by each AS independently and without any need for
coordination.
1.4. Routing
SCION provides path-aware inter-domain routing between ASes across
the Internet. The SCION control plane is responsible for discovering
these inter-domain paths and making them available to the endpoints
within the ASes. SCION inter-domain routing operates on two levels:
Within a SCION isolation domain (ISD), which is called _intra_-ISD
routing, and between ISDs, called _inter_-ISD routing. Both levels
use the so-called _path-segment construction beacons (PCBs)_ to
explore network paths. A PCB is initiated by a core AS and then
disseminated either within an ISD to explore intra-ISD paths, or
among core ASes, to explore core paths across different ISDs.
The PCBs accumulate cryptographically protected path and forwarding
information on AS-level, and store this information in the form of
_hop fields_. Endpoints use information from these hop fields to
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create end-to-end forwarding paths for data packets, who carry this
information in their packet headers. This concept is called _packet-
carried forwarding state_. The concept also supports multi-path
communication among endpoints.
The creation of an end-to-end forwarding path consists of the
following processes:
1. _Path exploration (or beaconing)_: This is the process where an
AS discovers paths to other ASes. See also Section 2.
2. _Path registration_: This is the process where an AS selects a
few PCBs, according to defined policies, turns the selected PCBs
into path segments, and adds these path segments to the relevant
path infrastructure, thus making them available to other ASes.
See also Section 3.
3. _Path resolution_: This is the process of actually creating an
end-to-end forwarding path from the source endpoint to the
destination. For this, an endpoint performs (a) a path lookup
step, to obtain path segments, and (b) a path combination step,
to combine the forwarding path from the segments. This last step
takes place in the data plane. See also Section 4.
All processes operate concurrently.
Figure 2 below shows the SCION routing processes and their relation
to each other.
+-------------------------+ +-------------------------+
| Exploration (Beaconing) |------>| Registration |
+-------------------------+ +-----------+-------------+
|
+---------------+
|
+------------------------v------------------------+
| Path Resolution |
| |
| +----------------+ +----------------+ |
| | Lookup +------>| Combination | |
| | | | (Data Plane)| |
| +----------------+ +----------------+ |
+-------------------------------------------------+
Figure 2: SCION routing processes and their relation to each
other. All processes operate concurrently
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The *control service* is responsible for the path exploration and
registration processes in the control plane. It is the main control-
plane infrastructure component within each SCION AS. The control
service of an AS has the following tasks:
* Generating, receiving, and propagating PCBs. Periodically, the
control service of a core AS generates a set of PCBs, which are
forwarded to the child ASes or neighboring core ASes. In the
latter case, the PCBs are sent over policy-compliant paths to
discover multiple paths between any pair of core ASes.
* Selecting and registering the set of path segments via which the
AS wants to be reached.
* Managing certificates and keys to secure inter-AS communication.
Each PCB contains signatures of all on-path ASes. Every time the
control service of an AS receives a PCB, it validates the PCB's
authenticity. When the control service lacks an intermediate
certificate, it can query the control service of the neighboring
AS that sent the PCB.
*Note:* The control service of an AS must not be confused with a
border router. The control service of a specific AS is part of the
control plane and responsible for _finding and registering suitable
paths_. It can be deployed anywhere inside the AS. A border router
belongs to the data plane; its main task is to _forward data
packets_. Border routers are deployed at the edge of an AS.
1.4.1. Path Segments
As described previously, the main goal of SCION's control plane is to
create and manage path segments, which can then be combined into
forwarding paths to transmit packets in the data plane. SCION
distinguishes the following types of path segments:
* A path segment from a non-core AS to a core AS is an _up-segment_.
* A path segment from a core AS to a non-core AS is a _down-
segment_.
* A path segment between core ASes is a _core-segment_.
So each path segment either ends at a core AS, or starts at a core
AS, or both.
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*Note:* There are no SCION path segments that start and end at a non-
core AS. However, when combining path segments into an end-to-end
SCION path, it is possible to use peering links. For more
information on SCION and peering links, see Section 2.
All path segments are invertible: A core-segment can be used
bidirectionally, and an up-segment can be converted into a down-
segment, or vice versa, depending on the direction of the end-to-end
path. This means that all path segments can be used to send data
traffic in both directions.
1.5. Addressing
The inter-domain SCION routing is based on the <ISD, AS> tuple.
Although a complete SCION address is composed of the <ISD, AS,
endpoint address> 3-tuple, the endpoint address is not used for
inter-domain routing or forwarding. The endpoint address can be of
variable length, does not need to be globally unique, and can thus be
an IPv4, IPv6, or link layer address, for example - in fact, the
endpoint address is the "normal", currently used, non-SCION-specific
endpoint address.
However, the ISD-AS number is a SCION-specific number. It consists
of 64-bits, with the top 16 bits indicating the ISD, and the bottom
48 bits indicating the AS. The text representation uses a dash-
separator between the ISD and AS numbers, for example: 4-ff00:1:f.
This section provides more details about the numbering scheme for
SCION ISD and AS numbers.
*Note:* As a consequence of the fact that SCION relies on existing
routing protocols (e.g., IS-IS, OSPF, SR) and communication fabric
(e.g., IP, MPLS) for intra-domain forwarding, existing internal
routers do not need to be changed to support SCION.
1.5.1. ISD Numbers
An ISD number is the 16-bit global identifier for an ISD. It MUST be
globally unique. The following table gives an overview of the ISD
number allocation.
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+==============+================================================+
| ISD | Description |
+==============+================================================+
| 0 | The wildcard ISD. |
+--------------+------------------------------------------------+
| 1 - 15 | Reserved for documentation and sample code |
| | (analogous to [RFC5398]). |
+--------------+------------------------------------------------+
| 16 - 63 | Private use (analogous to [RFC6996]). Can be |
| | used for testing and private deployments |
+--------------+------------------------------------------------+
| 64 - 4094 | Public ISDs. Should be allocated in ascending |
| | order, without gaps and "vanity" numbers. |
+--------------+------------------------------------------------+
| 4095 - 65535 | Reserved for future use. |
+--------------+------------------------------------------------+
Table 1: ISD number allocations
Currently, ISD numbers are allocated by Anapaya, the Swiss-based
provider of SCION-based networking software and solutions (see
Anapaya ISD AS assignments
(https://docs.anapaya.net/en/latest/resources/isd-as-assignments/)).
1.5.2. SCION AS Numbers
A SCION AS number is the 48-bit identifier for an AS. Although they
play a similar role, there is no relationship between SCION AS
numbers and BGP ASNs as defined by RFC4893. For historical reasons
some SCION autonomous systems use a SCION AS number where the first
16 bits are 0, and the remaining 32 bits are identical to their BGP
ASN. There is no technical requirement for such an equality.
1.5.2.1. Text Representation
The default text representation for SCION AS numbers is very similar
to IPv6 (see [RFC5952]). It uses a 16-bit colon-separated lower-case
hex encoding with leading 0's omitted: 0:0:0 to ffff:ffff:ffff.
In SCION, the following rules apply:
* The :: zero-compression feature of IPv6 is NOT allowed. The
feature has very limited use in a 48-bit address space and would
only add more complexity.
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* A range of AS numbers can be shortened with a notation similar to
the one used for CIDR IP ranges ([RFC4632]). For example, the
range of the lowest 32-bit AS numbers (0-4294967295) can be
represented as 0:0:0/16.
For historical reasons, SCION AS numbers in the lower 32 bit range
may also be represented as decimal for human readability. For
example, if a program receives the AS number 0:1:f, it may display
the number as "65551".
1.5.2.2. Special-Purpose SCION AS Numbers
+===================+=============+===============================+
| AS | Size | Description |
+===================+=============+===============================+
| 0:0:0 | 1 | The wildcard AS |
+-------------------+-------------+-------------------------------+
| 0:0:1-0:ffff:ffff | ~4.3 bill. | Public SCION AS numbers |
+-------------------+-------------+-------------------------------+
| 1:0:0 | 1 | Reserved |
+-------------------+-------------+-------------------------------+
| 2:0:0/16 | ~4.3 bill. | Additional public SCION AS |
| | | numbers |
+-------------------+-------------+-------------------------------+
| ff00:0:0/32 | 65535 | Reserved for documentation |
| | | and test/sample code |
| | | (analogous to [RFC5398]). |
+-------------------+-------------+-------------------------------+
| ff00:0:0/24 | ~16.8 mill. | Reserved for private use |
| | | (analogous to [RFC6996]). |
| | | These numbers can be used for |
| | | testing/private deployments. |
+-------------------+-------------+-------------------------------+
| ffff:ffff:ffff | 1 | Reserved |
+-------------------+-------------+-------------------------------+
Table 2: AS number allocations
The rest of the space is currently unallocated.
1.5.3. Wildcard Addressing
SCION allows endpoints to use wildcard addresses in the control-plane
routing, to designate any core AS, e.g., to place requests for core-
or down-segments during path lookup. These wildcard addresses are of
the form I-0, to designate any AS in ISD I. Here, "0" is the
wildcard for the AS. For more information, see Section 4.2.1.
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1.6. Avoiding Circular Dependencies and Partitioning
A secure and reliable routing architecture has to be designed
specifically to avoid circular dependencies during network
initialization. One goal of SCION is that the Internet can start up
even after large outages or attacks, in addition to avoiding cascades
of outages caused by fragile interdependencies. This section lists
the concepts SCION uses to prevent circular dependencies.
* Neighbor-based path discovery: Path discovery in SCION is
performed by the beaconing mechanism. In order to participate in
this process, an AS only needs to be aware of its direct
neighbors. As long as no path segments are available,
communicating with the neighboring ASes is possible with the one-
hop path type, which does not rely on any path information. SCION
uses these _one-hop paths_ to propagate PCBs to neighboring ASes
to which no forwarding path is available yet. The One-Hop Path
Type will be described in more detail in the SCION Data Plane
specification (this document will be available later this year).
* Path segment types: SCION uses different types of path segments to
compose end-to-end paths. Notably, a single path segment already
enables intra-ISD communication. For example, a non-core AS can
reach the core of the local ISD simply by using an up-segment
fetched from the local path storage, which is populated during the
beaconing process.
* Path reversal: In SCION, every path is reversible—i.e., the
receiver of a packet can reverse the path in the packet header to
send back a reply packet without having to perform a path lookup.
* Availability of certificates: In SCION, every entity is required
to be in possession of all cryptographic material (including the
ISD's Trust Root Configuration TRC and certificates) that is
needed to verify any message it sends. This (together with the
path reversal) means that the receiver of a message can always
obtain all this necessary material by contacting the sender.
*Note:* For a detailed description of a TRC and more information
on the availability of certificates and TRCs, see the SCION
Control-Plane PKI Internet-Draft [I-D.scion-cppki].
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1.6.1. Partition and Healing
Besides inter-dependencies, another threat to the Internet is network
partition. Partition occurs when one network is split into two
because of a link failure. However, partition of the global SCION
inter-domain network is much less likely to happen: During normal
operation, the full network fabric is available, offering multiple
paths between all ASes. Even during failures there is no special
failure mode required, as SCION-enabled ASes could always switch to
otherwise unused links.
Recovering (also called healing) from a partitioned network is also
seamless, as only coarse time synchronization between the partitions
is required to resume normal operation and move forward with updates
of the cryptographic material.
1.7. Communication Protocol
All communication between the control services in different ASes is
expressed in terms of gRPC remote procedure calls (for details, see
[gRPC]). Service interfaces and messages are defined in the Protocol
Buffer "proto3" interface definition language (for details, see
[proto3]).
*Note:* The details of how gRPC is mapped to the SCION data plane
will be described in a separate document.
2. Path Exploration or Beaconing
2.1. Introduction and Overview
*Path exploration* is the process where an AS discovers paths to
other ASes. In SCION, this process is referred to as _beaconing_.
This section gives a detailed explanation of the SCION beaconing
process.
In SCION, the _control service_ of each AS is responsible for the
beaconing process. The control service generates, receives, and
propagates so-called _path-segment construction beacons (PCBs)_ on a
regular basis, to iteratively construct path segments. PCBs contain
topology and authentication information, and can also include
additional metadata that helps with path management and selection.
The beaconing process itself is divided into routing processes on two
levels, where _inter-ISD_ or core beaconing is based on the
(selective) sending of PCBs without a defined direction, and _intra-
ISD_ beaconing on top-to-bottom propagation.
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* _Inter-ISD or core beaconing_ is the process of constructing path
segments between core ASes in the same or in different ISDs.
During core beaconing, the control service of a core AS either
initiates PCBs or propagates PCBs received from neighboring core
ASes to other neighboring core ASes. Core beaconing is periodic;
PCBs are sent over policy-compliant paths to discover multiple
paths between any pair of core ASes.
* _Intra-ISD beaconing_ creates path segments from core ASes to non-
core ASes. For this, the control service of a core AS creates
PCBs and sends them to the non-core child ASes (typically customer
ASes). The control service of a non-core child AS receives these
PCBs and forwards them to its child ASes, and so on. This
procedure continues until the PCB reaches an AS without any
customer (leaf AS). As a result, all ASes within an ISD receive
path segments to reach the core ASes of their ISD.
On its way, a PCB accumulates cryptographically protected path- and
forwarding information per traversed AS. At every AS, metadata as
well as information about the AS's ingress and egress interfaces are
added to the PCB.
2.1.1. Peering Links
PCBs do not traverse peering links. Instead, peering links are
announced along with a regular path in a PCB. If both ASes at either
end of a peering link have registered path segments that include this
specific peering link, then it is possible to use this peering link
during segment combination to create the end-to-end path.
2.1.2. Extending a PCB
Every propagation period (as configured by the AS), the control
service:
* selects the best combinations of PCBs and interfaces connecting to
a neighboring AS (i.e., a child AS or a core AS), and
* sends each selected PCB to the selected egress interface(s)
associated with it.
For every selected PCB and egress interface combination, the AS
extends the PCB by adding a so-called _AS entry_ to the selected PCB.
Such an AS entry includes a hop field that specifies the incoming
(ingress) and outgoing (egress) interface for the packet forwarding
through this AS, in the beaconing direction. The AS entry can also
contain peer entries.
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* For the specification of one PCB, see Section 2.2
* For more details on selecting PCBs, see Section 2.3.1
* For more details on propagating PCBs, see Section 2.3.2
2.1.3. PCB Propagation - Illustrated Examples
The following three figures show how intra-ISD PCB propagation works,
from the ISD's core AS down to child ASes. For the sake of
illustration, the interfaces of each AS are numbered with integer
values.
In Figure 3 below, core AS X sends the two different PCBs "a" and "b"
via two different links to child AS Y: PCB "a" leaves core AS X via
egress interface "2", whereas PCB "b" is sent over egress interface
"1". Core AS X adds the respective egress information to the PCBs
when sending them off, as can be seen in the figure (the entries
"_Core - Out:2_" and "_Core - Out:1_", respectively).
+-------------+
| Core AS X |
| |
| 2 1 |
+----#---#----+
+--------+ | | +--------+
|PCB | +-----+ | | +-----+ |PCB |
|========|-----|PCB a| | | |PCB b|=====|++++++++|
|Core | +-----+ | | +-----+ |Core |
|- Out:2 | | | | | |- Out:1 |
+--------+ v | | v +--------+
v v
+----#---#----+
| AS Y |
Figure 3: Intra-ISD PCB propagation from the ISD core to child
ASes - Part 1
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AS Y receives the two PCBs "a" and "b" through two different
(ingress) interfaces, namely "2" and "3", respectively (see Figure 4
below). Additionally, AS Y forwards to AS Z four PCBs that were
previously sent by core AS X. For this, AS Y uses the two different
(egress) links "5" and "6". AS Y extends the four PCBs with the
corresponding ingress and egress interface information. As can be
seen in the figure, AS Y also has two peering links to its
neighboring peers V and W, through the interfaces "1" and "4",
respectively - AS Y includes this information in the PCBs, as well.
Thus, each forwarded PCB cumulates path information on its way "down"
from core AS X.
+-----+ | | +-----+
|PCB a| | | |PCB b|
+-----+ | | +-----+
| | | |
v | | v
v v
+----#---#----+
.---. | 2 3 |
( V )- --# 1 |
`---' | AS Y | .---.
| 4 #- --( W )
| | `---'
| 6 5 |
+--------+ +----#---#----+ +--------+
|PCB | | | |PCB |
|========| | | |========|
|Core X | | | |Core X |
|- Out:2 | | | |- Out:2 |
+--------+ |--------| +-----+ | | +-----+ |--------| +--------+
|PCB | |AS Y |--|PCB c| | | |PCB d|--|AS Y | |PCB |
|++++++++| |-In:2 | +-----+ | | +-----+ |-In:2 | |++++++++|
|Core X | |-Out:6 | | | | | |-Out:5 | |Core X |
|- Out:1 | |-PeerV:1| v | | v |-PeerV:1| |- Out:1 |
|--------| |-PeerW:4| | | |-PeerW:4| |--------|
|AS Y | +--------+ | | +--------+ |AS Y |
|-In:3 | +-----+ | | +-----+ |-In:3 |
|-Out:6 |==============|PCB e| | | |PCB f|==============|-Out:5 |
|-PeerV:1| +-----+ | | +-----+ |-PeerV:1|
|-PeerW:4| | | | | |-PeerW:4|
+--------+ v | | v +--------+
v v
+----#---#----+
| AS Z |
Figure 4: Intra-ISD PCB propagation from the ISD core to child
ASes - Part 2
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The following figure shows how the four PCBs "c", "d", "e", and "f",
coming from AS Y, are received by AS Z over two different links: PCBs
"c" and "e" reach AS Z over ingress interface "5", whereas PCBs "d"
and "f" enter AS Z via ingress interface "1". Additionally, AS Z
propagates PCBs "g", "h", "i", and "j" further down, all over the
same link (egress interface "3"). AS Z extends the PCBs with the
relevant information, so that each of these PCBs now includes AS hop
entries from core AS X, AS Y, and AS Z.
+-----+ | | +-----+
|PCB c| | | |PCB d|
+-----+ | | +-----+
| +-----+ | | +-----+ |
v |PCB e| | | |PCB f| v
+-----+ | | +-----+
| | | |
v | | v
v v
+------#---#------+
| 5 1 |
| |
| AS Z |
+--------+ | 3 | +--------+
|PCB | +--------#--------+ |PCB |
|========| | |========|
|Core X | | |Core X |
+--------+ |- Out:2 | | |- Out:2 | +--------+
|PCB | |--------| | |--------| |PCB |
|++++++++| |AS Y | | |AS Y | |++++++++|
|Core X | |-In:2 | | |-In:2 | |Core X |
|- Out:1 | |-Out:6 | +-----+ | +-----+ |-Out:5 | |- Out:1 |
|--------| |-PeerV:1|---|PCB g| | |PCB h|---|-PeerV:1| |--------|
|AS Y | |-PeerW:4| +-----+ | +-----+ |-PeerW:4| |AS Y |
|-In:3 | |--------| | | | |--------| |-In:3 |
|-Out:6 | |AS Z | v | v |AS Z | |-Out:5 |
|-PeerV:1| |-In:5 | | |-In:1 | |-PeerV:1|
|-PeerW:4| |-Out:3 | | |-Out:3 | |-PeerW:4|
|--------| +--------+ | +--------+ |--------|
|AS Z | +-----+ | +-----+ |AS Z |
|-In:5 |===============|PCB i| | |PCB j|===============|-In:1 |
|-Out:3 | +-----+ | +-----+ |-Out:3 |
+--------+ | | | +--------+
v | v
v
Figure 5: Intra-ISD PCB propagation from the ISD core to child
ASes - Part 3
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Based on the figures above, one could say that a PCB represents a
single path segment. However, there is a difference between a PCB
and a (registered) path segment. A PCB is a so-called "travelling
path segment" that accumulates AS entries when traversing the
Internet. A (registered) path segment, instead, is a "snapshot" of a
travelling PCB at a given time T and from the vantage point of a
particular AS A. This is illustrated by Figure 6. This figure shows
several possible path segments to reach AS Z, based on the PCBs "g",
"h", "i", and "j" from Figure 5 above. It is up to AS Z to use all
of these path segments or just a selection of them.
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AS Entry Core AS Entry Y AS Entry Z
+-------------+ +-------------+ +-------------+
| Core AS X | | AS Y | | AS Z |
path segment 1 | 1# #3 5 #1 |
| | | | | |
| 2#-----#2----------- 6-----#5 |
| | | | | |
+-------------+ +-------------+ +-------------+
egress 2 ingress 2 - egress 6 ingress 5
----------------------------------------------------------------------
+-------------+ +-------------+ +-------------+
| Core AS X | | AS Y | | AS Z |
| 1# #3 +-----5#-----#1 |
path segment 2 | | | | | | |
| 2#-----#2-----+ 6# #5 |
| | | | | |
+-------------+ +-------------+ +-------------+
egress 2 ingress 2 - egress 5 ingress 1
------------------------------------------------------------------------
+-------------+ +-------------+ +-------------+
| Core AS X | | AS Y | | AS Z |
| 1#-----#3-----+ 5# #1 |
path segment 3 | | | | | | |
| 2# #2 +-----6#-----#5 |
| | | | | |
+-------------+ +-------------+ +-------------+
egress 1 ingress 3 - egress 6 ingress 5
------------------------------------------------------------------------
+-------------+ +-------------+ +-------------+
| Core AS X | | AS Y | | AS Z |
| 1#-----#3-----------5#-----#1 |
path segment 4 | | | | | |
| 2# #2 6# #5 |
| | | | | |
+-------------+ +-------------+ +-------------+
egress 1 ingress 3 - egress 5 ingress 1
Figure 6: Possible up- or down-segments for AS Z
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2.2. Path-Segment Construction Beacons (PCBs)
This section provides a detailed specification of a single PCB and
its message format.
*Note:* The SCION open-source implementation makes use of Protobuf
(Protocol Buffers), a free and open-source cross-platform data format
developed by Google and used to serialize structured data. The
messages and remote procedure calls described below are in "proto3"
language. For more information on Protobuf, see the official
"Protocol Buffers Documentation" (https://protobuf.dev/).
2.2.1. Components of a PCB in Message Format
Figure 7 graphically represents the PCB message format:
PCB / PATH SEGMENT
+-------------+------------+------------+--------+--------------------+
|Segment Info | AS Entry 0 | AS Entry 1 | ... | AS Entry N |
+-------------+------------+------------+--------+--------------------+
*- - - - # - -* *- - - # - - *
| |
*- - - - v - - - * |
+---------+------+ |
|Timestamp|Seg ID| |
+---------+------+ |
|
*- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -v- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - *
+-----------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| Unsigned Ext. | Signed AS Entry |
+-----------------------+----------------------------------------------+
*- - - - - - - - - - - - # - - - - - - - - - - *
|
|
*- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - v - - - - - - - - - - *
+--------------------+-----------------++------------------------------+
| Signature | Header || Body |
+--------------------+-----------------++------------------------------+
*- - - - # - - - -**- - - - - - - - # - - - - - - *
| |
*- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -v- - - - * |
+----------------+---------------------+ |
| Signature Alg. | Verification Key ID | |
+----------------+---------------------+ |
*- - - - - # - - - - -* |
| |
*- - - - - - - - - - - - - -v- - - - - - - - - -* |
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+---------+---------+------------+--------------+ |
| ISD-AS |TRC Base | TRC Serial |Subject Key ID| |
+---------+---------+------------+--------------+ |
|
*- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - v - - - - - - *
+------+-----------+---------++------------+----+------------++---+----+
|ISD-AS|Next ISD-AS|Hop Entry||Peer Entry 0| ...|Peer Entry N||MTU|Ext.|
+------+-----------+---------++------------+----+------------++---+----+
*- - # - -**- - - # - - *
| |
| |
*- - - - - - - - - - - -v- * *- - - v - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - *
+-------------+------------+ +--------+--------+----------+-----------+
| Ingress MTU | Hop Field | |HopField|PeerMTU |PeerISD-AS|PeerInterf.|
+-------------+--------+---+ +----+---+--------+----------+-----------+
*- - -#- - -*
|
|
*- - - - - - - - - - - - - - v - - - - - - - - - - - - - - *
+------------+-------------+-------------------+-----------+
| Ingress | Egress | Expiration Time | MAC |
+------------+-------------+-------------------+-----------+
Figure 7: Top-down composition of one PCB
The following sections provide detailed specifications of the PCB
messages, starting with the top-level message of one PCB, and then
diving deeper into each of the PCB's message components.
*Note:* For a full example of one PCB in the Protobuf message format,
please see Appendix "PCB Protobuf Messages - Full Example".
2.2.1.1. PCB Top-Level Message Format
+-------------+-------------+------------+------+------------+
|Segment Info | AS Entry 0 | AS Entry 1 | ... | AS Entry N |
+-------------+-------------+------------+------+------------+
Each PCB MUST consists of at least:
* An information field with an identifier and a timestamp.
* Entries of all ASes on the path segment represented by this PCB.
The following code block defines the PCB on top level in Protobuf
message format.
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message PathSegment {
bytes segment_info = 1;
repeated ASEntry as_entries = 2;
}
* segment_info: This field is used as input for the PCB signature.
It is the encoded version of the component SegmentInformation,
which provides basic information about the PCB. The
SegmentInformation component is specified in detail in
Section 2.2.1.2.
* as_entries: Contains the ASEntry component of all ASes on the path
segment represented by this PCB.
- ASEntry: The ASEntry component contains the complete path
information of a specific AS that is part of the path segment
represented by the PCB. The ASEntry component is specified in
detail in Section 2.2.1.3.
2.2.1.2. Segment Information
+----------------------------+
| Segment Info |
+----------------------------+
*- - - - - - - # - - - - - - *
|
|
*- - - - - - - v - - - - - - *
+--------------+-------------+
| Timestamp | Seg ID |
+--------------+-------------+
Each PCB MUST include an information component with basic information
about the PCB.
In the Protobuf message format, the information component of a PCB is
called the SegmentInformation message. The following code block
shows the Protobuf message definition for the SegmentInformation
message.
message SegmentInformation {
int64 timestamp = 1;
uint32 segment_id = 2;
}
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* timestamp: The 32-bit timestamp indicates the creation time of
this PCB. It is set by the originating core AS. The expiration
time of the corresponding path segment is computed relative to
this timestamp. The timestamp is encoded as the number of seconds
elapsed since the POSIX Epoch (1970-01-01 00:00:00 UTC).
* segment_id: The 16-bit identifier of this PCB and the
corresponding path segment. The segment ID is required for the
computation of the message authentication code (MAC) of an AS's
hop field. The MAC is used for hop field verification in the data
plane. The originating core AS MUST fill this field with a
cryptographically random number.
*Note:* See Section 2.2.1.6 for more information on the hop field
message format. The SCION Data Plane Specification provides a
detailed description of the computation of the MAC and the
verification of the hop field in the data plane.
2.2.1.3. AS Entry
+--------------+
| AS Entry |
+--------------+
*- - - -#- - - *
|
|
|
*- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - v - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - *
+-----------------------+------------------------------------------+
| Unsigned Ext. | Signed AS Entry |
+-----------------------+------------------------------------------+
Beside the basic information component, each PCB MUST also contain
the entries of all ASes included in the corresponding path segment.
This means that the originating core AS MUST add its AS entry to each
PCB it creates. During the beaconing process, also each traversed AS
MUST attach its AS entry to the PCB.
One AS entry contains the complete hop information for this specific
AS in this specific path segment. It consists of a signed and an
unsigned component.
The code block below defines an AS entry ASEntry in Protobuf message
format.
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message ASEntry {
SignedMessage signed = 1;
PathSegmentUnsignedExtensions unsigned = 2;
}
It includes the following components:
* SignedMessage: The signed component of an AS entry. For the
specification of this part of the AS entry, see Section 2.2.1.4
below.
* PathSegmentUnsignedExtensions: The unsigned and thus unprotected
part of the AS entry. These are extensions with metadata that
need no explicit protection.
2.2.1.4. AS Entry Signed Component
+------------------------------------------------------+
| Signed AS Entry |
+------------------------------------------------------+
*- - - - - - - - - - - - -#- - - - - - - - - - - - - - *
|
|
*- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -v- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -*
+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------------+
| Header | Body | Signature |
+--------------------+-----------------+------------------------------+
Each AS entry of a PCB MUST include a signed component as well as a
signature computed over the signed component. Each AS entry MUST be
signed with a private key that corresponds to the public key
certified by the AS's certificate.
This section specifies the signed component of an AS entry. The
signed component of an AS entry MUST include the following elements:
* a header,
* a body, and
* a signature.
In the Protobuf message-format implementation, the signed component
of an AS entry is specified by the SignedMessage. It consists of a
header-and-body part (header_and_body) and a raw signature
(signature). See also the code block below.
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message SignedMessage {
bytes header_and_body = 1;
bytes signature = 2;
}
The following code block shows the low-level representation of the
HeaderAndBodyInternal message used for signature computation input.
This message should not be used by external code.
message HeaderAndBodyInternal {
// Encoded header suitable for signature computation.
bytes header = 1;
// Raw payload suitable for signature computation.
bytes body = 2;
}
* For the specification of the signed header, see Section 2.2.1.4.1.
* For the specification of the signed body, see Section 2.2.1.4.2.
* For the specification of the signature field, see
Section 2.2.1.4.3.
2.2.1.4.1. AS Entry Signed Header
+-----------------+
| Header |
+-----------------+
*- - - - # - - - -*
|
- - - - - - - - - -v- - - - - - - - - *
+----------------+---------------------+
| Signature Alg. | Verification Key ID |
+----------------+---------------------+
*- - - - - # - - - - -*
|
- - - - - - - - - - - - - -v- - - - - - - - - -
+---------+---------+------------+--------------+
| ISD-AS |TRC Base | TRC Serial |Subject Key ID|
+---------+---------+------------+--------------+
The header part defines metadata that is relevant to (the computation
and verification of) the signature. It MUST include at least the
following metadata:
* The algorithm to compute the signature
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* The identifier of the public key used to verify the signature
(i.e., the public key certified by the AS's certificate)
* The ISD-AS number of the AS
The following code block defines the signed header of an AS entry in
Protobuf message format (called the Header message).
message Header {
SignatureAlgorithm signature_algorithm = 1;
bytes verification_key_id = 2;
// Optional
google.protobuf.Timestamp timestamp = 3;
// Optional
bytes metadata = 4;
int32 associated_data_length = 5;
}
message VerificationKeyID {
uint64 isd_as = 1;
bytes subject_key_id = 2;
uint64 trc_base = 3;
uint64 trc_serial = 4;
}
* signature_algorithm: Specifies the algorithm to compute the
signature.
* verification_key_id: Holds the serialized data defined by the
VerificationKeyID message type. The VerificationKeyID message
contains more information that is relevant to signing and
verifying PCBs and other control-plane messages. The
VerificationKeyID message type includes the following fields (see
also the above code block):
- isd_as: The ISD-AS number of the current AS.
- subject_key_id: Refers to the certificate that contains the
public key needed to verify this PCB's signature.
- trc_base: Defines the _base_ number of the latest Trust Root
Configuration (TRC) available to the signer at the time of the
signature creation.
- trc_serial: Defines the _serial_ number of the latest TRC
available to the signer at the time of the signature creation.
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*Note:* For more information on signing and verifying control-plane
messages (such as PCBs), see the chapter Signing and Verifying
Control-Plane Messages of the SCION Control-Plane PKI Specification
[I-D.scion-cppki]. For more information on the TRC base and serial
number, see the chapter Trust Root Configuration Specification of the
SCION Control-Plane PKI Specification [I-D.scion-cppki].
* timestamp: Defines the signature creation timestamp. This field
is optional.
* metadata: Can be used to include arbitrary per-protocol metadata.
This field is optional.
* associated_data_length: Specifies the length of associated data
that is covered by the signature, but is not included in the
header and body. The value of this field is zero, if no
associated data is covered by the signature.
2.2.1.4.2. AS Entry Signed Body
+--------------------------------------+
| Body |
+--------------------------------------+
*- - - - - - - - - -#- - - - - - - - - *
|
|
*- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -v- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -*
+------+-----------+---------++------------+---+------------++---+----+
|ISD-AS|Next ISD-AS|Hop Entry||Peer Entry 0|...|Peer Entry N||MTU|Ext.|
+------+-----------+---------++------------+---+------------++---+----+
The body of an AS entry MUST consist of the signed component
ASEntrySignedBody of all ASes in the path segment represented by the
PCB, up until and including the current AS.
The following code block defines the signed body of one AS entry in
Protobuf message format (called the ASEntrySignedBody message).
message ASEntrySignedBody {
uint64 isd_as = 1;
uint64 next_isd_as = 2;
HopEntry hop_entry = 3;
repeated PeerEntry peer_entries = 4;
uint32 mtu = 5;
PathSegmentExtensions extensions = 6;
}
* isd_as: The ISD-AS number of the AS that created this AS entry.
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* next_isd_as: The ISD-AS number of the downstream AS to which the
PCB should be forwarded.
* hop_entry: The hop entry (HopEntry) with the information required
to forward this PCB through the current AS to the next AS. This
information is used in the data plane. For a specification of the
hop entry, see Section 2.2.1.5.
* peer_entries: The list of optional peer entries (PeerEntry). For
a specification of one peer entry, see Section 2.2.1.7.
* mtu: The size of the maximum transmission unit (MTU) within the
current AS's network.
* extensions: List of (signed) extensions (optional). PCB
extensions defined here are part of the signed AS entry. This
field SHOULD therefore only contain extensions that include
important metadata for which cryptographic protection is required.
For more information on PCB extensions, see Section 2.2.2.
2.2.1.4.3. AS Entry Signature
Each AS entry is signed with a private key K_i that corresponds to
the public key certified by the AS's certificate. The signature
Sig_i of an AS entry ASE_i is computed over the AS entry's signed
component. This is the input for the computation of the signature:
* The signed header and body of the current AS (header_and_body).
* The segment_info component of the current AS. This is the encoded
version of the SegmentInformation component containing basic
information about the path segment represented by the PCB. For
the specification of SegmentInformation, see Section 2.2.1.2.
* The signed header_and_body/signature combination of each previous
AS on this specific path segment.
The signature Sig_i of an AS entry ASE_i is now computed as follows:
Sig_i = K_i( SegInfo || ASE_0^(signed) || Sig_0 || ... ||
ASE_(i-1)^(signed) || Sig_(i-1) || ASE_i^(signed) )
The signature metadata minimally contains the ISD-AS number of the
signing entity and the key identifier of the public key that should
be used to verify the message. For more information on signing and
verifying control-plane messages, see the chapter "Signing and
Verifying Control-Plane Messages" of the SCION Control-Plane PKI
Specification [I-D.scion-cppki].
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The following code block shows how the signature input is defined in
the SCION Protobuf implementation ("ps" stands for path segment).
Note that the signature has a nested, onion-like structure.
input(ps, i) = signed.header_and_body || associated_data(ps, i)
associated_data(ps, i) = ps.segment_info ||
ps.as_entries[1].signed.header_and_body ||
ps.as_entries[1].signed.signature ||
...
ps.as_entries[i-1].signed.header_and_body ||
ps.as_entries[i-1].signed.signature
2.2.1.5. Hop Entry
+-----------+
| Hop Entry |
+-----------+
*- - -#- - -*
|
- - - - - - v - - - - - - *
+-------------+------------+
| Ingress MTU | Hop Field |
+-------------+------------+
Each body of an AS entry MUST contain exactly one hop entry
component. The hop entry component specifies forwarding information
for the data plane. The data plane requires this information to
create the hop through the current AS (in the direction of the
beaconing).
The following code block defines the hop entry component HopEntry in
Protobuf message format:
message HopEntry {
HopField hop_field = 1;
uint32 ingress_mtu = 2;
}
* hop_field: Contains the authenticated information about the
ingress and egress interfaces in the direction of beaconing. The
data plane needs this information to forward packets through the
current AS. For further specifications, see Section 2.2.1.6.
* ingress_mtu: Specifies the maximum transmission unit (MTU) of the
ingress interface of the current AS.
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2.2.1.6. Hop Field
+-----------+
| Hop Field |
+-----------+
*- - -#- - -*
|
|
*- - - - - - - - - - - - - -v- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - *
+-------------+-------------+-------------------+----------+
| Ingress | Egress | Expiration Time | MAC |
+-------------+-------------+-------------------+----------+
The hop field, part of both hop entries and peer entries, is used
directly in the data plane for packet forwarding: It specifies the
incoming and outgoing interfaces of the ASes on the forwarding path.
To prevent forgery, this information is authenticated with a message
authentication code (MAC).
The following code block defines the hop field component HopField in
Protobuf message format:
message HopField {
uint64 ingress = 1;
uint64 egress = 2;
uint32 exp_time = 3;
bytes mac = 4;
}
* ingress: The 16-bit ingress interface identifier (in the direction
of the path construction, that is, in the direction of beaconing
through the current AS).
*Note:* For the AS that initiates the PCB, the ingress interface
identifier MUST NOT be specified. This initiating AS is a core AS.
* egress: The 16-bit egress interface identifier (in the direction
of beaconing).
* exp_time: The 8-bit encoded expiration time of the hop field,
indicating how long the hop field is valid. This value is an
offset relative to the PCB creation timestamp set in the PCB's
segment information component (see also Section 2.2.1.2). By
combining these two values, the AS can compute the absolute
expiration time of the hop field. Data-plane packets that use the
hop field after the expiration time MUST be dropped.
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* mac: The message authentication code (MAC) used in the data plane
to verify the hop field. The SCION Data Plane Specification
provides a detailed description of the computation of the MAC and
the verification of the hop field in the data plane.
2.2.1.7. Peer Entry
+--------------+
| Peer Entry |
+--------------+
*- - - -#- - - *
|
*- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -v- - - - - - - - - - - - - - *
+-------------+------------+--------------+----------------+
| Hop Field | Peer MTU | Peer ISD-AS | Peer Interface |
+-------------+------------+--------------+----------------+
By means of a peer entry, an AS can announce that it has a peering
link to another AS. A peer entry is an optional component of a PCB -
it is only included if there is a peering link to a peer AS.
The following code block defines the peer entry component PeerEntry
in Protobuf message format:
message PeerEntry {
uint64 peer_isd_as = 1;
uint64 peer_interface = 2;
uint32 peer_mtu = 3;
HopField hop_field = 4;
}
* peer_isd_as: The ISD-AS number of the peer AS. This number is
used to match peering segments during path construction.
* peer_interface: The 16-bit interface identifier of the peering
link on the peer AS side. This identifier is used to match
peering segments during path construction.
* peer_mtu: Specifies the maximum transmission unit MTU on the
peering link.
* hop_field: Contains the authenticated information about the
ingress and egress interfaces in the current AS (coming from the
peering link, in the direction of beaconing - see also Figure 8).
The data plane needs this information to forward packets through
the current AS. For further specifications, see Section 2.2.1.6.
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+-----------+
| |
| parent AS |
| |
+-----------+
|
|
| ASE.HF.ingress_interface
+--------#-----------+ +-----------------+
| | | PE.peer_ | |
| | interface| |
| | + - - - - #------------------# peer AS |
| |PE.HF.ingress_ | |
| | | |interface | |
| | +-----------------+
| v v |
+---------#----------+
| PE.HF.egress_interface
| ASE.HF.egress_interface
|
|
+-----------+
| |
| child AS |
| |
+-----------+
Figure 8: Peer entry information, in the direction of beaconing
2.2.2. PCB Extensions
In addition to basic routing information like hop entries and peer
entries, PCBs can be used to communicate additional metadata, in its
extensions. Extensions can be signed and unsigned. Signed
extensions are protected by the AS signature, whereas unsigned
extensions are not.
On code-level and in Protobuf message format, extensions are
specified as follows:
* Unsigned extensions PathSegmentUnsignedExtensions are part of the
AS entry component (the ASEntry message, see also
Section 2.2.1.3).
* Signed extensions PathSegmentExtensions are part of the signed
body component of an AS entry (the ASEntrySignedBody message, see
also Section 2.2.1.4.2).
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*Note:* SCION also supports so-called "detachable extensions". The
detachable extension itself is part of a PCB's unsigned extensions,
but a cryptographic hash of the detachable extension data is added to
the signed extensions. Thus, a PCB with a detachable extension can
be signed and verified without actually including the detachable
extension in the signature. This prevents a possible processing
overhead caused by large cryptographically-protected extensions.
2.3. Propagation of PCBs
This section describes how PCBs are selected and propagated in the
path exploration process.
2.3.1. Selection of PCBs to Propagate
As an AS receives a series of intra-ISD or core PCBs, it must select
the PCBs it will use to continue beaconing. Each AS must specify a
local policy on the basis of which PCBs are evaluated, selected or
eliminated. The selection process can be based on _path_ properties
(e.g., length, disjointness across different paths) as well as on
_PCB_ properties (e.g., age, remaining lifetime of sent instances) -
each AS is free to use those properties that suit the AS best. The
control service can then compute the overall quality of each
candidate PCB based on these properties. For this, the AS should use
a selection algorithm or metric that reflects its needs and
requirements and identifies the best PCBs or paths segments for this
AS.
2.3.1.1. Storing and Selecting Candidate PCBs
When receiving a PCB, an AS first stores the PCB in a temporary
storage for candidate PCBs, called the _beacon store_.
PCBs are propagated in batches to each connected downstream AS at a
fixed frequency, the _propagation interval_. At each propagation
event, each AS selects a set of the best PCBs from the candidates in
the beacon store, according to the AS's selection policy. This set
should have a fixed size, the _best PCBs set size_.
* The _best PCBs set size_ SHOULD be at most "50" (PCBs) for intra-
ISD beaconing and at most "5" (PCBs) for core beaconing.
*Note:* Depending on the selection criteria, it may be necessary to
keep more candidate PCBs than the _best PCBs set size_ in the beacon
store, to be able to determine the best set of PCBs. If this is the
case, an AS should have a suitable pre-selection of candidate PCBs in
place, in order to keep the beacon store capacity limited.
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* The _propagation interval_ SHOULD be at least "5" (seconds) for
intra-ISD beaconing and at least "60" (seconds) for core
beaconing.
*Note:* Note that during bootstrapping and if the AS obtains a PCB
containing a previously unknown path, the AS SHOULD forward the PCB
immediately, to ensure quick connectivity establishment.
2.3.1.2. Selection Policy Example
Figure 9 below illustrates the selection of path segments in three
networks. Each network uses a different path property to select path
segments.
* The network at the upper left considers the _path length_, which
is here defined as the number of hops from the originator core AS
to the local AS. This number can give an indication of the path's
latency. Based on this criterion, the network will select the PCB
representing path segment A-G (in direction of beaconing) to
propagate.
* The network at the upper right uses _peering links_ as the
selection criterion, that is, the number of different peering ASes
from all non-core ASes on the PCB or path segment: A greater
number of peering ASes increases the likelihood of finding a
shortcut on the path segment. Based on this criterion, the
network will select the PCB representing path segment B-E-I-L (in
direction of beaconing) to propagate.
* The lower network selects PCBs based on _disjointness_. The
disjointness of a PCB is calculated relative to the PCBs that have
been previously sent. Paths can be either AS-disjoint or link-
disjoint. AS-disjoint paths have no common upstream/core AS for
the current AS, whereas link-disjoint paths do not share any AS-
to-AS link. Depending on the objective of the AS, both criteria
can be used: AS-disjointness allows path diversity in the event
that an AS becomes unresponsive, and link-disjointness provides
resilience in case of link failure. Based on the disjointness
criterion, the network will select the PCBs representing the path
segments A-D-G-H-J and C-E-F-I-J (in direction of beaconing) to
propagate.
Selected path segment: #------# or *------*
Peering Link: PL
ISD A: Path Length ISD B: Peering Links
+----------------------+ +---------------------------+
| ISD Core | | ISD Core |
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| .---. .---. | | .---. .---. |
|( A ) - - - ( C ) | | ( A ) - - - - - ( C ) |
| `-#-' `---' | + --- `---' `---' |
| || .---. | | | | | .---. - - - - - |
| | - ( B ) - | | | | -( B ) |
| | `-+-' | | | `-#-|| |
+---|--------------|---+ | | | | - - - - - - - - +
| | | | | | | |
| | +----|------|-|-------------+ |
| | .-+-. | + - - - - +
| .-+-. ( E ) | | | |
| ( D ) `---' | |
| `-+-' | .-+-. | .-#-. .-+-. |
| .-+-. ( D )-PL-----( E )--PL-( F )
| | ( F ) `---' | `-#-' `-+-' .-+-.
.-#-. `-+-' | ( G )
( G ) - + | - - + | | `-+-'
`---- - - - - - - | |
.---. .-#-. .-+-. |
( H )-PL--( I )--PL-( J )
`---' `-#-' `---' .-+-.
| | ( K )
ISD C: Disjointness | `---'
+---------------------------+ .-#-. | |
| ISD Core | ( L ) - - - -
| | `---' - - - - - - - - +
| .---. .---. |
|( A ) - - - - - - ( C )|
| `-*-' `-#-' |
| | | .---. | | |
| | - - ( B ) - - | |
| | `---' | |
+---|-------------------|---+
| |
.----*. .-#---.
( D ) ( E )
`----*' `-#---'
| | | |
#---------------------#
| | | |
| *------------------*
| | | |
.--#--. .*----.
( F #-------# ( G )
`-----' | `*----|
| *------------*
| | |
|-----. | | .-----.
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( H *----* #------# I )
`---*-' `-#---'
| |
| .---. |
*------* J #-------#
`---'
Figure 9: Example networks to illustrate path-segment selection
based on different path properties.
2.3.2. Propagation of Selected PCBs
As mentioned above, once per _propagation period_ (determined by each
AS), an AS propagates selected PCBs to its neighboring ASes. This
happens on the level of both intra-ISD beaconing and core beaconing.
This section describes both processes in more detail.
To bootstrap the initial communication with a neighboring beacon
service, ASes use so-called one-hop paths. This special kind of path
handles beaconing between neighboring ASes for which no forwarding
path may be available yet. In fact, it is the task of beaconing to
discover such forwarding paths. The purpose of one-hop paths is thus
to break this circular dependency. The One-Hop Path Type will be
described in more detail in the SCION Data Plane specification.
2.3.2.1. Propagation - First Steps
The following first steps of the propagation procedure are the same
for both intra-ISD and core beaconing:
1. Upon receiving a PCB, the control service of an AS verifies the
structure and all signatures on the PCB.
*Note:* The PCB contains the version numbers of the trust root
configuration(s) (TRC) and certificate(s) that must be used to
verify its signatures. This enables the control service to check
whether it has the relevant TRC(s) and certificate(s); if not,
they can be requested from the control service of the sending AS.
2. As core beaconing is based on sending PCBs without a defined
direction, it is necessary to avoid loops during path creation.
The control service of core ASes MUST therefore check whether the
PCB includes duplicate hop entries created by the core AS itself
or by other ASes. If so, the PCB MUST be discarded in order to
avoid loops. Additionally, core ASes could forbid, that is, not
propagate, beacons containing path segments that traverse the
same ISD more than once. *Note:* Where loops must always be
avoided, it is a policy decision to forbid ISD double-crossing.
It can be legitimate to cross the same ISD multiple times: For
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example, if the ISD spans a large geographical area, a path
transiting another ISD may constitute a shortcut. However, it is
up to each core AS to decide whether it wants to allow this.
3. If the PCB verification is successful, the control service
decides whether to store the PCB as a candidate for propagation
based on selection criteria and polices specific for each AS.
For more information on the selection process, see Section 2.3.1.
2.3.2.2. Propagation of PCBs in Intra-ISD Beaconing
The propagation process in intra-ISD beaconing includes the following
steps:
1. From the candidate PCBs stored in the beacon store, the control
service of an AS selects the best PCBs to propagate to its
downstream neighboring ASes, based on a selection algorithm
specific for this AS.
2. The control service adds a new AS entry to every selected PCB.
This AS entry MUST at least include:
* The ingress interface to this AS, in the hop field component.
* The egress interface to the neighboring AS, also in the hop
field component.
* The ISD_AS number of the next AS, in the signed body component
of the AS entry.
* If the AS has peering links, the control service should add
corresponding peer entry components to the signed body of the
AS entry; one peer entry component for each peering link that
the AS wants to advertise. The hop field component of each
added peer entry MUST have a specified egress interface.
3. The control service MUST now sign each selected, extended PCB and
append the computed signature.
4. As a final step, the control service propagates each extended PCB
to the correct neighboring ASes, by invoking the
SegmentCreationService.Beacon remote procedure call (RPC) in the
control services of the neighboring ASes (see also
Section 2.3.2.4).
*Note:*
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* For more information on the signed body component of an AS entry,
see Section 2.2.1.4.2.
* For more information on a peer entry, see Section 2.2.1.7.
* For more information on the hop field component, see
Section 2.2.1.6.
* For more information on signing an AS entry, see
Section 2.2.1.4.3.
2.3.2.3. Propagation of PCBs in Core Beaconing
The propagation process in core beaconing includes the following
steps:
1. The core control service selects the best PCBs to forward to
neighboring core ASes observed so far.
2. The service adds a new AS entry to every selected PCB. This AS
entry MUST at least include:
* The egress interface to the neighboring core AS, in the hop
field component.
* The ISD_AS number of the neighboring core AS, in the signed
body component of the AS entry.
3. The core control service MUST now sign the extended PCBs and
append the computed signature.
4. As a final step, the service propagates the extended PCBs to the
neighboring core ASes, by invoking the
SegmentCreationService.Beacon remote procedure call (RPC) in the
control services of the neighboring core ASes (see also
Section 2.3.2.4).
2.3.2.4. Propagation of PCBs in Protobuf Message Format
The last step of the above described core and intra-ISD propagation
procedures is implemented as follows in Protobuf message format:
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service SegmentCreationService {
rpc Beacon(BeaconRequest) returns (BeaconResponse) {}
}
message BeaconRequest {
PathSegment segment = 1;
}
message BeaconResponse {}
The propagation procedure includes the following elements:
* SegmentCreationService: Specifies the service via which the
extended PCB is propagated to the control service of the
neighboring AS.
- Beacon: Specifies the method that calls the control service at
the neighboring AS in order to propagate the extended PCB.
* BeaconRequest: Specifies the request message sent by the Beacon
method to the control service of the neighboring AS. It contains
the following element:
- PathSegment: Specifies the path segment to propagate to the
neighboring AS. For more information on the Protobuf message
type PathSegment, see Section 2.2.1.1.
* BeaconResponse: Specifies the response message from the
neighboring AS.
3. Registration of Path Segments
*Path registration* is the process where an AS transforms selected
PCBs into path segments, and adds these segments to the relevant path
databases, thus making them available to other ASes.
As mentioned previously, a non-core AS typically receives several
PCBs representing several path segments to the core ASes of the ISD
the AS belongs to. Out of these PCBs, the non-core AS selects those
down-path segments through which it wants to be reached, based on AS-
specific selection criteria. The next step is to register the
selected down-segments with the control service of the relevant core
ASes, according to a process called _intra-ISD path-segment
registration_. As a result, a core AS's control service contains all
intra-ISD path segments registered by the non-core ASes of its ISD.
In addition, each core AS control service also stores preferred core-
path segments to other core ASes, in the _core-segment registration_
process. Both processes are described below.
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3.1. Intra-ISD Path-Segment Registration
Every _registration period_ (determined by each AS), the AS's control
service selects two sets of PCBs to transform into two types of path
segments:
* Up-segments, which allow the infrastructure entities and endpoints
in this AS to communicate with core ASes; and
* down-segments, which allow remote entities to reach this AS.
The up- and down-segments do not have to be equal. An AS may want to
communicate with core ASes via one or more up-segments that differ
from the down-segment(s) through which it wants to be reached.
Therefore, an AS can define different selection policies for the up-
and down-segment sets. Also, the processes of transforming a PCB in
an up-segment or a down-segment differ slightly. Both processes are
described below.
3.1.1. Terminating a PCB
Both the up- and down-segments end at the AS. One could therefore
say that by transforming a PCB into a path segment, an AS
"terminates" the PCB for this AS ingress interface and at this moment
in time.
The control service of a non-core AS must perform the following steps
to "terminate" a PCB:
1. The control service adds a new AS entry to the PCB. This new AS
entry MUST be defined as follows:
* The next AS MUST NOT be specified.
- In Protobuf message format, this means that the value of
the next_isd_as field in the ASEntrySignedBody component
MUST be "0".
* The egress interface in the hop field component MUST NOT be
specified.
- In Protobuf message format, this means that the value of
the egress field in the HopField component MUST be "0".
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2. If the AS has peering links, the control service should add
corresponding peer entry components to the signed body of the AS
entry - one peer entry component for each peering link that the
AS wants to advertise. The egress interface ID in the hop field
component of each added peer entry MUST NOT be specified.
* In Protobuf message format, this means that the value of the
egress field in the HopField component MUST be "0".
3. As a last step, the control service MUST sign the modified PCB
and append the computed signature.
*Note:*
* For more information on the signed body component of an AS entry,
see Section 2.2.1.4.2.
* For more information on a peer entry, see Section 2.2.1.7.
* For more information on the hop field component, see
Section 2.2.1.6.
* For more information on signing an AS entry, see
Section 2.2.1.4.3.
3.1.2. Transforming a PCB into an Up-Segment
Every registration period, the control service of a non-core AS
performs the following steps to transform PCBs into up-segments:
1. The control service selects the PCBs that it wants to transform
into up-segments from the candidate PCBs in the beacon store.
2. The control service "terminates" the selected PCBs by performing
the steps described in Section 3.1.1. From this moment on, the
modified PCBs are called *up-segments*.
3. The control service now adds the newly created up-segments to its
own path database.
*Note:* For more information on possible selection strategies of
PCBs, see Section 2.3.1.
3.1.3. Transforming a PCB into a Down-Segment
Every registration period, the control service of a non-core AS
performs the following steps to transform PCBs into down-segments:
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1. The control service selects the PCBs that it wants to transform
into down-segments from the candidate PCBs in the beacon store.
2. The control service "terminates" the selected PCBs by performing
the steps described in Section 3.1.1. From this moment on, the
modified PCBs are called *down-segments*.
3. The control service now registers the newly created down-segments
with the control services of the core ASes that originated the
corresponding PCBs. This is done by invoking the
SegmentRegistrationService.SegmentsRegistration remote procedure
call (RPC) in the control services of the relevant core ASes (see
also Section 3.3).
*Note:* For more information on possible selection strategies of
PCBs, see Section 2.3.1.
3.2. Core Path-Segment Registration
The core beaconing process creates path segments from core AS to core
AS. These core-segments are then added to the control service path
database of the core AS that created the segment, so that local and
remote endpoints can obtain and use these core-segments. In contrast
to the intra-ISD registration procedure, there is no need to register
core-segments with other core ASes (as each core AS will receive PCBs
originated from every other core AS).
In every registration period, the control service of a core AS
performs the following operations:
1. The core control service selects the best PCBs towards each core
AS observed so far.
2. The core control service "terminates" the selected PCBs by
performing the steps described in Section 3.1.1. From this
moment on, the modified PCBs are called *core-segments*.
3. As a final step, the control service adds the newly created core-
segments to its own path database.
*Note:* For more information on possible selection strategies of
PCBs, see Section 2.3.1.
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3.3. Path-Segment Registration on Code-Level
The control service of a non-core AS has to register the newly
created down-segments with the control services of the core ASes that
originated the corresponding PCBs. This registration step is
implemented as follows in Protobuf message format:
enum SegmentType {
SEGMENT_TYPE_UNSPECIFIED = 0;
SEGMENT_TYPE_UP = 1;
SEGMENT_TYPE_DOWN = 2;
SEGMENT_TYPE_CORE = 3;
}
service SegmentRegistrationService {
rpc SegmentsRegistration(SegmentsRegistrationRequest) returns (SegmentsRegistrationResponse) {}
}
message SegmentsRegistrationRequest {
message Segments {
repeated PathSegment segments = 1;
}
map<int32, Segments> segments = 1;
}
message SegmentsRegistrationResponse {}
* SegmentType: Specifies the type of the path segment that must be
registered. Currently, only the following type is used:
- SEGMENT_TYPE_DOWN: Specifies a down-segment.
* map<int32, Segments> segments: Represents a separate list of
segments for each path segment type. The key is the integer
representation of the corresponding SegmentType.
4. Path Lookup
The _path lookup_ is a fundamental building block of SCION's path
management, as it enables endpoints to obtain path segments found
during path exploration and registered during path registration.
This allows the endpoints to construct end-to-end paths from the set
of possible path segments returned by the path lookup process. The
lookup of paths still happens in the control plane, whereas the
construction of the actual end-to-end paths happens in the data
plane.
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4.1. Lookup Process
An endpoint (source) that wants to start communication with another
endpoint (destination), requires up to three path segments:
* An up-path segment to reach the core of the source ISD (only if
the source endpoint is a non-core AS),
* a core-path segment to reach
- another core AS in the source ISD, in case the destination AS
is in the same source ISD, or
- a core AS in a remote ISD, if the destination AS is in another
ISD, and
* a down-path segment to reach the destination AS.
*Note:* The actual number of required path segments depends on the
location of the destination AS as well as on the availability of
shortcuts and peering links. More information on combining and
constructing paths will be provided by the SCION Data Plane
Specification document.
The process to look up and fetch path segments consists of the
following steps:
1. First, the source endpoint queries the control service in its own
AS (i.e., the source AS) for the required segments. The control
service has up-path segments stored in its path database.
Additionally, the control service checks if it has appropriate
core- and down-path segments in store as well; in this case it
returns them immediately.
2. If there are no appropriate core-segments and down-segments, the
control service in the source AS queries the control services of
the reachable core ASes in the source ISD, for core-path segments
to core ASes in the destination ISD (which is either the own or a
remote ISD). To reach the core control services, the control
service of the source AS uses the locally stored up-path
segments.
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3. Next, the control service of the source AS combines up-path
segments with the newly retrieved core-path segments. The
control service then queries the control services of the remote
core ASes in the destination ISD, to fetch down-path segments to
the destination AS. To reach the remote core ASes, the control
service of the source AS uses the previously obtained and
combined up- and core segments.
4. Finally, the control service of the source AS returns all
retrieved path segments to the source endpoint.
5. Once it has obtained all path segments, the endpoint combines
them into an end-to-end path in the data plane.
Table 3 below shows which control service provides the source
endpoint with which type of path segment.
+==============+=============================================+
| Segment Type | Responsible control service(s) |
+==============+=============================================+
| Up-segment | Control service of the source AS |
+--------------+---------------------------------------------+
| Core-segment | Control service of core ASes in source ISD |
+--------------+---------------------------------------------+
| Down-segment | Control service of core ASes in destination |
| | ISD (either the local ISD or a remote ISD) |
+--------------+---------------------------------------------+
Table 3: Control services responsible for different types
of path segments
4.1.1. Sequence of Lookup Requests
The overall sequence of requests to resolve a path should be as
follows:
1. Request up-segments for the source endpoint at the control
service of the source AS.
2. Request core-segments, which start at the core ASes that are
reachable with up-segments, and end at the core ASes in the
destination ISD. If the destination ISD coincides with the
source ISD, this step requests core segments to core ASes that
the source endpoint cannot directly reach with an up-segment.
3. Request down-segments starting at core ASes in the destination
ISD.
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4.1.2. Caching
For the sake of efficiency, the control service of the source AS
should cache each returned path segment request. Caching ensures
that path lookups are fast for frequently used destinations. The use
of caching is also essential to ensure that the path-lookup process
is scalable and can be performed with low latency.
In general, to improve overall efficiency, the control services of
all ASes should do the following:
* Cache the returned path segments.
* Send requests in parallel when requesting path segments from other
control services.
4.2. Behavior of Actors in the Lookup Process
As described above, the source endpoint resolves paths with a
sequence of segment requests to the control service of the source AS.
The control service in the source AS answers directly, or forwards
these requests to the responsible control services of core ASes. In
SCION, the instances that handle these segment requests at the
control services are called _source AS segment-request handler_ and
_core AS segment-request handler_, respectively. This section
specifies the behavior of the segment-request handlers in the lookup
process. First, the use of wildcards in the lookup process is
briefly addressed.
4.2.1. Use of Wildcard Addresses in the Lookup Process
Endpoints can use wildcard addresses to designate any core AS in
path-segment requests. The segment-request handlers must expand
these wildcard addresses and translate them into one or more actual
addresses. Table 4 below shows who is responsible for what.
*Note:* For general information on the use of wildcard addresses in
SCION, see Section 1.5.3.
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+==============+==================+=============+=================+
| Segment | Wildcard | Expanded/ | Translated Into |
| Request | Represents | Translated | |
| | | By | |
+==============+==================+=============+=================+
| Up-segment | "Destination" | Control | Actual address |
| | core AS (where | service of | destination |
| | up-segment ends) | the _source | core AS in |
| | | AS_ | source ISD |
+--------------+------------------+-------------+-----------------+
| Core-segment | Source core AS | Control | Actual address |
| | (where core- | service of | source core AS |
| | segment | the _source | in source ISD |
| | starts)^1 | AS_ | |
+--------------+------------------+-------------+-----------------+
| Core-segment | Destination core | Control | Actual address |
| | AS (where core- | service of | destination |
| | segment ends) | the _source | core AS in |
| | | core AS_ | destination ISD |
+--------------+------------------+-------------+-----------------+
| Down-segment | "Source" core AS | Control | Actual address |
| | (where down- | service of | source core AS |
| | segment | the _source | in destination |
| | starts)^2 | AS_ | ISD |
+--------------+------------------+-------------+-----------------+
Table 4: Use of wildcards in path segments requests
1) Includes all core ASes for which an up-segment from the source AS
exists.
2) Includes all core ASes in destination ISD with a down-segment to
destination AS.
4.2.2. Segment-Request Handler of a Non-Core Source AS
When the segment-request handler of the control service of a _non-
core_ source AS receives a path segment request, it MUST proceed as
follows:
1. Determine the requested segment type.
2. In the case of an up-segment request, look up matching up-
segments in the path database and return them.
3. In the case of a core-segment request from a source core AS to a
destination core AS:
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* Expand the source wildcard into separate requests for each
reachable core AS in the source ISD.
* For each core-segment request,
- If possible, return matching core-segments from cache;
- otherwise, request the core-segments from the control
services of each reachable core AS at the source (start) of
the core-segment. Add the retrieved core-segments to the
cache.
4. In the case of a down-segment request:
* Expand the source wildcard into separate requests for every
core AS in the destination ISD (destination ISD refers to the
ISD to which the destination endpoint belongs).
* For each segment request,
- If possible, return matching down-segments from cache;
- otherwise, request the down-segment from the control
services of the core ASes at the source (start) of the
down-segment. Sending the request may require looking up
core-segments to the source core AS of the down-segment.
Add the retrieved down-segments to the cache.
4.2.3. Segment-Request Handler of a Core AS
When the segment-request handler of a _core AS_ control service
receives a path segment request, it MUST proceed as follows:
1. Validate the request:
* The source of the path segment must be this core AS.
* The request must either be
- for a core-segment to a core AS in this ISD or another ISD,
or
- for a down-segment to an AS in this ISD.
2. If the destination is a core or wildcard address, then load
matching core-segments from the path database and return.
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3. Otherwise, load the matching down-segments from the path database
and return.
Appendix "Path-Lookup Examples" shows by means of an illustration how
the lookup of path segments in SCION works.
5. Security Considerations
As described previously, the goal of SCION’s beaconing process in the
control plane is to securely discover and disseminate paths between
any two ASes. This section describes security considerations for
SCION's control plane, that focuses on _inter_-domain routing. SCION
does not provide intra-domain routing, nor does it provide end-to-end
payload encryption. These topics lie therefore outside the scope of
this section.
This section focuses on three kinds of security risks in the control
plane. The first risk is when an adversary controls one or all core
ASes of an ISD and tries to manipulate the beaconing process from the
top down (see Section 5.1). Also "ordinary" (non-core) adversaries
that try to manipulate the beaconing process pose a risk to the
control plane (see Section 5.2). The third kind of security risks
are Denial of Services (DoS) attacks, where attackers overload
different parts of the infrastructure (see Section 5.3).
5.1. Manipulation of the Beaconing Process by a Core Adversary
The first kind of risk to the beaconing process comes from an
adversary controlling one or more core ASes in an ISD. If the
adversary stops all core AS(es) within an ISD from propagating PCBs,
the discovery of new paths halts. In this case, downstream ASes will
notice that PCBs are no longer being propagated, but all previously
discovered (and still valid) paths remain usable for data-plane
forwarding until they expire. This is an unlikely scenario, as it
would require compromise of all core ASes within an ISD.
5.2. Manipulation of the Beaconing Process by a Non-Core Adversary
This section examines several possible approaches open to an
"ordinary" non-core adversary to manipulate the beaconing process in
the SCION control plane, and shows for each case to what extent
SCION's design can prevent the corresponding attack or help to
mitigate it.
* Path hijacking through interposition (see Section 5.2.1)
* Creation of spurious ASes and ISDs (see Section 5.2.2)
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* Peering link misuse (see Section 5.2.3)
* Manipulation of the path selection process (see Section 5.2.4)
5.2.1. Path Hijacking through Interposition
An malicious AS M might try to manipulate the beaconing process
between two neighbor ASes A and B, with the goal to hijack traffic to
flow via M. If M can interpose itself on the path between A and B,
then it could attempt several potential attacks:
* The adversary M could intercept and disseminate a PCB on its way
from A to the neighboring AS B, and inject its own AS entry into
the PCB toward downstream ASes.
* The adversary could modify the hop fields of an already existing
path, in order to insert its own AS in the path.
* The adversary could fully block traffic between AS A and AS B, in
order to force traffic redirection through an alternate path that
includes its own AS.
The first type of attack is detectable and blocked by downstream ASes
(e.g. B), because a PCB disseminated by AS A towards AS B contains
the "Next ISD AS" field in the entry of AS A, pointing to AS B, and
protected by A's signature. If M manipulates the PCB while in flight
from A to B, then verification of the manipulated inbound PCBs will
fail at AS B, as the adversary's PCBs cannot contain A's correct
signature. The second type of attack is made impossible by the hop
field's MAC, which protects the hop field's integrity and chains it
with the previous hop fields on the path. The third type of attack
generally cannot be prevented, however the alternate path would be
immediately visible to endpoints, as traffic must include hop fields
from AS M.
5.2.2. Creation of Spurious ASes and ISDs
An alternative scenario is when an adversary tries to introduce and
spoof a nonexistent ASes. This would enable the adversary to send
traffic with the spoofed AS as a source, allowing the adversary to
complicate the detection of its attack and to plausibly deny the
misbehavior.
However, spoofing a new AS requires a registration of that AS with
the ISD core to obtain a valid AS certificate; otherwise the
adversary cannot construct valid PCBs. As this registration includes
a thorough check and authentication by a CA, this cannot be done
stealthily, which defeats the original purpose.
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Similarly to creating a fake AS, an adversary could try to introduce
a new, malicious ISD. This involves the generation of its own TRC,
finding core ASes to peer with, and convincing other ISDs of its
legitimacy to accept the new TRC. Although this setup is not
entirely impossible, it requires substantial time and effort, and may
need the involvement of more than one malicious entity. Here, the
"costs" of setting up the fake ISD may outweigh the benefits.
5.2.3. Peering Link Misuse
The misuse of a peering link by an adversary represents another type
of attack. Consider the case where AS A wants to share its peering
link only with one of its downstream neighbors, AS B, and therefore
selectively includes the peering link only in PCBs sent to B. An
adversary may now try to gain access to this peering link by
prepending the relevant PCBs to its own path. For this, the
adversary needs to be able to (1) eavesdrop on the link from A to B,
and (2) obtain the necessary hop fields by querying a control service
and extracting the hop fields from registered paths.
Even if an adversary succeeds in misusing a peering link as described
above, SCION is able to mitigate this kind of attack: Each AS
includes an egress interface as well as specific “next hop”
information to the PCB before disseminating it further downstream.
If a malicious entity tries to misuse a stolen PCB by adding it to
its own segments, verification will fail upstream as the egress
interface mismatches. Therefore, the peering link can only be used
by the intended AS.
5.2.4. Manipulation of the Path-Selection Process
Endpoint path control is one of the main benefits of SCION compared
to the current Internet, as SCION endpoints can select inter-domain
forwarding paths for each packet. However, with the benefits of path
selection comes the risk of endpoints selecting non-optimal paths.
This section discusses some mechanisms with which an adversary can
attempt to trick endpoints downstream (in the direction of beaconing)
into choosing non-optimal paths. The goal of such attacks is to make
paths that are controlled by the adversary more attractive than other
available paths.
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In SCION, overall path selection is the result of three steps.
First, each AS selects which PCBs are further forwarded to its
neighbors. Second, each AS chooses the paths it wants to register at
the local control service (as up-segments) and at the core control
service (as down-segments). Third, the endpoint performs path
selection among all available paths resulting from a path lookup
process. The following text describes attacks that aim at
influencing the path-selection process.
These attacks are only successful if the adversary is located within
the same ISD and upstream relative to the victim AS. It is not
possible to attract traffic away from the core as traffic travels
upstream towards the core. Furthermore, the attack may either be
discovered downstream (e.g., by seeing large numbers of paths
becoming available), or during path registrations. After detection,
non-core ASes will be able to identify paths traversing the adversary
AS and avoid these paths.
*Announcing Large Numbers of Path Segments*
This attack is possible if the adversary controls multiple (at least
two) ASes. The adversary can create a large number of links between
the ASes under its control, which do not necessarily correspond to
physical links. This allows the adversary to multiply the number of
PCBs forwarded to its downstream neighbor ASes. This in turn
increases the chance that one or several of these forwarded PCBs are
selected by the downstream ASes.
In general, the number of PCBs that an adversary can announce this
way scales exponentially with the number of consecutive ASes the
adversary controls. However, this also decreases their chance of
being chosen by a downstream AS for PCB dissemination or by an
endpoint for path construction, as these relatively long paths have
to compete with other, shorter paths. Furthermore, both endpoints
and downstream ASes can detect poorer quality paths in the data plane
and switch to better paths.
*Wormhole Attack*
A malicious AS M1 can send a PCB not only to their downstream
neighbor ASes, but also out-of-band to another, non-neighbor
colluding malicious AS M2. This creates new segments to M2 and M2's
downstream neighbor ASes, simulating a link between M1 and M2 which
may not correspond to an actual link in the network topology.
Similarly, a fake path can be announced through a fake peering link
between two colluding ASes, even if in different ISDs. An adversary
can advertise fake peering links between the two colluding ASes, thus
offering short paths to many destination ASes. Downstream ASes might
have a policy of preferring paths with many peering links and thus
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are more likely to disseminate PCBs from the adversary. Similarly,
endpoints are more likely to choose short paths that make use of
peering links. In the data plane, whenever the adversary receives a
packet containing a fake peering link, it can transparently exchange
the fake peering hop fields with valid hop fields to the colluding
AS. To avoid detection of the path alteration by the receiver, the
colluding AS can replace the added hop fields with the fake peering
link hop fields the sender inserted.
To defend against this attack, methods to detect the wormhole attack
are needed. Per link or path latency measurements can help reveal
the wormhole and render the fake peering link suspicious or
unattractive. Without specific detection mechanisms these so-called
wormhole attacks are unavoidable in routing.
5.3. Denial of Service Attacks
The beaconing process in the SCION control plane relies on control-
plane communication. ASes exchange control-plane messages within
each other when propagating PCBs to downstream neighbors, when
registering PCBs as path segments at the core control services, or
during core path lookup. Volumetric DoS attacks, where attackers
overload a link, may make it difficult to exchange these messages.
SCION limits the impact of volumetric DoS attacks, which aim to
exhaust network bandwidth on links; in this case, ASes can switch to
alternative paths that do not contain the congested links. In
addition, reflection-based attacks are prevented, as thanks to path-
awareness, response packets are returned on the same path to the
actual sender.
Other mechanisms are required to avoid transport protocol attacks,
where the attacker tries to exhaust the resources on a target server,
such as a control service server, by opening many connections to this
server. Possible means to mitigate this kind of DoS attacks are
basically the same as for the current Internet, e.g., filtering, geo-
blocking or using cookies.
Thanks to its path-awareness, SCION enables more fine-grained
filtering mechanisms based on certain path properties. For example,
control-plane RPC methods that are available to endpoints within an
AS are strictly separate from methods available to endpoints from
other ASes. Specifically, expensive recursive path segment and trust
material lookups are thus shielded from abuse by unauthorized
entities. For RPC methods exposed to other ASes, the control service
implementation minimizes its attack surface by rejecting illegitimate
callers based on ISD/AS, path type and length and any other available
data points as soon as possible, i.e. immediately after determining
the request type. For example:
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* SegmentCreationService.Beacon can only be called by direct
neighbors and thus calls from peers with a path length greater
than one can immediately be discarded.
* SegmentRegistrationService.SegmentsRegistration can only be called
from within the same ISD, thus the source address must match the
local ISD and the number of path segments must be 1.
A combination of the mechanism above is used to prevent flooding
attacks on the control service. In addition, the control services
are designed to be deployed on replicated instances so that requests
can be balanced.
6. IANA Considerations
This document has no IANA actions.
The ISD and SCION AS number are SCION-specific numbers. They are
currently allocated by Anapaya Systems, a provider of SCION-based
networking software and solutions (see Anapaya ISD AS assignments
(https://docs.anapaya.net/en/latest/resources/isd-as-assignments/)).
This task is currently being transitioned from Anapaya to the SCION
Association.
7. References
7.1. Normative References
[gRPC] "gRPC, an open-source universal RPC framework", 2023,
<https://grpc.io/>.
[I-D.scion-components]
Rustignoli, N. and C. de Kater, "SCION Components
Analysis", 2023, <https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/draft-
rustignoli-panrg-scion-components/>.
[I-D.scion-cppki]
de Kater, C., Rustignoli, N., and S. Hitz, "SCION Control-
Plane PKI", 2023, <https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/draft-
dekater-scion-pki/>.
[proto3] "Protocol Buffers Language Guide version 3", 2023,
<https://protobuf.dev/programming-guides/proto3/>.
[RFC1122] Braden, R., Ed., "Requirements for Internet Hosts -
Communication Layers", STD 3, RFC 1122,
DOI 10.17487/RFC1122, October 1989,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc1122>.
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[RFC2119] Bradner, S., "Key words for use in RFCs to Indicate
Requirement Levels", BCP 14, RFC 2119,
DOI 10.17487/RFC2119, March 1997,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc2119>.
[RFC4632] Fuller, V. and T. Li, "Classless Inter-domain Routing
(CIDR): The Internet Address Assignment and Aggregation
Plan", BCP 122, RFC 4632, DOI 10.17487/RFC4632, August
2006, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc4632>.
[RFC5952] Kawamura, S. and M. Kawashima, "A Recommendation for IPv6
Address Text Representation", RFC 5952,
DOI 10.17487/RFC5952, August 2010,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc5952>.
[RFC8174] Leiba, B., "Ambiguity of Uppercase vs Lowercase in RFC
2119 Key Words", BCP 14, RFC 8174, DOI 10.17487/RFC8174,
May 2017, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc8174>.
7.2. Informative References
[CHUAT22] Chuat, L., Legner, M., Basin, D., Hausheer, D., Hitz, S.,
Mueller, P., and A. Perrig, "The Complete Guide to SCION",
ISBN 978-3-031-05287-3, 2022,
<https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05288-0>.
[I-D.scion-dp]
de Kater, C., Rustignoli, N., and S. Hitz, "SCION Data
Plane", 2023, <https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/draft-
dekater-scion-dataplane/>.
[I-D.scion-overview]
de Kater, C., Rustignoli, N., and A. Perrig, "SCION
Overview", 2023, <https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/draft-
dekater-panrg-scion-overview/>.
[RFC5398] Huston, G., "Autonomous System (AS) Number Reservation for
Documentation Use", RFC 5398, DOI 10.17487/RFC5398,
December 2008, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc5398>.
[RFC6996] Mitchell, J., "Autonomous System (AS) Reservation for
Private Use", BCP 6, RFC 6996, DOI 10.17487/RFC6996, July
2013, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc6996>.
[RFC9473] Enghardt, R. and C. Krähenbühl, "A Vocabulary of Path
Properties", RFC 9473, DOI 10.17487/RFC9473, September
2023, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc9473>.
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Acknowledgments
Many thanks go to William Boye (Swiss National Bank), Matthias Frei
(SCION Association), Kevin Meynell (SCION Association), Juan A.
Garcia Prado (ETH Zurich), and Roger Lapuh (Extreme Networks) for
reviewing this document. We are also very grateful to Adrian Perrig
(ETH Zurich), for providing guidance and feedback about each aspect
of SCION. Finally, we are indebted to the SCION development teams of
Anapaya and ETH Zurich, for their practical knowledge and for the
documentation about the SCION Control Plane, as well as to the
authors of [CHUAT22] - the book is an important source of input and
inspiration for this draft.
PCB Protobuf Messages - Full Example
The following code block provides a full example of one PCB in the
Protobuf message format.
message PathSegment {
bytes segment_info = 1;
repeated ASEntry as_entries = 2;
}
message SegmentInformation {
int64 timestamp = 1;
uint32 segment_id = 2;
}
message ASEntry {
// The signed part of the AS entry. The body of the SignedMessage
// is the serialized ASEntrySignedBody.
// The signature input is defined as following:
//
// input(ps, i) = signed.header_and_body || associated_data(ps,i)
//
// associated_data(ps, i) =
// ps.segment_info ||
// ps.as_entries[1].signed.header_and_body ||
// ps.as_entries[1].signed.signature ||
// ...
// ps.as_entries[i-1].signed.header_and_body ||
// ps.as_entries[i-1].signed.signature
//
SignedMessage signed = 1;
// Optional
PathSegmentUnsignedExtensions unsigned = 2;
}
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message SignedMessage {
// Encoded header and body.
bytes header_and_body = 1;
// Raw signature. The signature is computed over the
// concatenation of the header and body, and the optional
// associated data.
bytes signature = 2;
}
message HeaderAndBodyInternal {
// Encoded header suitable for signature computation.
bytes header = 1;
// Raw payload suitable for signature computation.
bytes body = 2;
}
message Header {
SignatureAlgorithm signature_algorithm = 1;
bytes verification_key_id = 2;
// Optional
google.protobuf.Timestamp timestamp = 3;
// Optional
bytes metadata = 4;
int32 associated_data_length = 5;
}
message VerificationKeyID {
uint64 isd_as = 1;
bytes subject_key_id = 2;
uint64 trc_base = 3;
uint64 trc_serial = 4;
}
message ASEntrySignedBody {
uint64 isd_as = 1;
uint64 next_isd_as = 2;
HopEntry hop_entry = 3;
repeated PeerEntry peer_entries = 4;
uint32 mtu = 5;
// Optional
PathSegmentExtensions extensions = 6;
}
message HopEntry {
HopField hop_field = 1;
uint32 ingress_mtu = 2;
}
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message PeerEntry {
uint64 peer_isd_as = 1;
uint64 peer_interface = 2;
uint32 peer_mtu = 3;
HopField hop_field = 4;
}
message HopField {
uint64 ingress = 1;
uint64 egress = 2;
uint32 exp_time = 3;
bytes mac = 4;
}
Path-Lookup Examples
To illustrate how the path lookup works, we show two path-lookup
examples in sequence diagrams. The network topology of the examples
is represented in Figure 10 below. In both examples, the source
endpoint is in AS A. Figure 11 shows the sequence diagram for the
path lookup process in case the destination is in AS D, whereas
Figure 12 shows the path lookup sequence diagram if the destination
is in AS G. ASes B and C are core ASes in the source ISD, while E
and F are core ASes in a remote ISD. Core AS B is a provider of the
local AS, but AS C is not, i.e., there is no up-segment from A to C.
"CS" stands for controle service.
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+----------------------------+ +----------------------------+
| | | |
| | | |
| +------------------+ | | +------------------+ |
| | Core | | | | Core | |
| | | | | | | |
| | .---. .---. | | | | .---. | |
| |( C )---( B )-----------------------------( F )| |
| | `+--' `+-+'---------+ | | .---. `+-+' | |
| | | | | | | +------------( E ) | | | |
| | | | | | | | | `-+-'----+ | | |
| +--|---------|-|---+ | | +------|--------|--+ |
| | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | |
| |+--------+ | | | | | |
| || | | | | | |
| || | | | | | |
| .-++. | | | .-+-. | |
| ( D ) .-+-. | | ( G )-----+ |
| `---' ( A ) | | `---' |
| `---' | | |
| ISD 1 | | ISD 2 |
+----------------------------+ +----------------------------+
Figure 10: Topology used in the path lookup examples.
+---------+ +---------+ +---------+ +---------+
|Endpoint | |Source AS| | Core AS | | Core AS |
| | | CS (A) | | CS (B) | | CS (C) |
+----+----+ +----+----+ +----+----+ +-----+---+
+++ | | |
| | | | |
+---+-+-------+ | | |
|send requests| | | |
| in parallel | | | |
+---+-+-------+ | | |
| | | | |
| | request (up) | | |
| +----------------->+++ | |
| |< -- -- -- -- -- -+++ | |
| | reply (up,[A->B]) | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| |request (core,*,*) | | |
| +----------------->+++ | |
| | | |request (core,B,*) | |
| | | +----------------->+++ |
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| | | |<-- -- -- -- -- --+++ |
| | | | reply(core,[B->C])| |
| |< -- -- -- -- -- -+++ | |
| |reply (core,[B->C])| | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| |request (down,*,D) | | |
| +----------------->+++ | |
| | +-----+-+-----+ | |
| | |send requests| | |
| | | in parallel | | |
| | +-----+-+-----+ | |
| | | | | |
| | | |request (down,B,D) | |
| | | +----------------->+++ |
| | | |<-- -- -- -- -- --+++ |
| | | | reply(down,[B->D])| |
| | | | | |
| | | | |request (down,C,D) |
| | | +-------------------+----------------->+++
| | | <-- -- -- -- -- -- -+ -- -- -- -- -- --+++
| | reply (down, | | | reply(down,[C->D])|
| | [B->D, C->D]) | | | |
| |< -- -- -- -- -- -+++ | |
| | | | |
+---+-+----------+ | | |
|combine segments| | | |
+---+-+----------+ | | |
| | | | |
+++ | | |
| | | |
+---+----+ +---+----+ +----+---+ +----+---+
+--------+ +--------+ +--------+ +--------+
Figure 11: Sequence diagram illustrating a path lookup for a
destination D in the source ISD. The request (core, x, x) is for
all pairs of core ASes in the source ISD. Similarly, (down, x,
D) is for down-segments between any core AS in the source ISD and
destination D.
+---------+ +---------+ +---------+ +---------+ +---------+
|Endpoint | |Source AS| | Core AS | | Core AS | | Core AS |
| | | CS (A) | | CS (B) | | CS (E) | | CS (F) |
+---+-----+ +----+----+ +----+----+ +----+----+ +----+----+
| | | | |
+++ | | | |
| | | | | |
+--+-+------+ | | | |
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| send | | | | |
|requests in| | | | |
| parallel | | | | |
+--+-+------+ | | | |
| | | | | |
| | request (up) | | | |
| +------------->+++ | | |
| |<- -- -- -- --+++ | | |
| | reply | | | |
| | (up,[A->B]) | | | |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | request | | | |
| |(core,*,(2,*)) | | | |
| +------------->+++ request | | |
| | | |(core,B,(2,*)) | | |
| | | +------------->+++ | |
| | | |<- -- -- -- --+++ | |
| | | | reply (core, | | |
| | | | [B->E,B->F]) | | |
| |<- -- -- -- --+++ | | |
| | reply (core, | | | |
| | [B->E,B->F]) | | | |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | request | | | |
| |(down,(2,*),G) | | | |
| +------------->+++ | | |
| | +-----+-+-----+ | | |
| | |send requests| | | |
| | | in parallel | | | |
| | +-----+-+-----+ | request | |
| | | | | (down,E,G) | |
| | | +---------------+----------->+++ |
| | | <- -- -- -- -- -+ -- -- -- --+++ |
| | | | | reply | |
| | | | |(down,[E->G])| |
| | | | | | request |
| | | | | | (down,F,G) |
| | | +---------------+-------------+----------->+++
| | | < -- -- -- -- --|-- -- -- -- -+ -- -- -- --+++
| | | | | | reply |
| | reply (down, | | | |(down,[F->G])|
| | [E->G,F->G]) | | | | |
| |<- -- -- -- --+++ | | |
| | | | | |
+--+-+----+ | | | |
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| combine | | | | |
|segments | | | | |
+--+-+----+ | | | |
| | | | | |
+++ | | | |
| | | | |
+---+----+ +---+----+ +---+----+ +---+----+ +---+----+
+--------+ +--------+ +--------+ +--------+ +--------+
Figure 12: Sequence diagram illustrating a path lookup for a
destination G in a remote ISD. The request (core, x, (2, x)) is
for all path segments between a core AS in the source ISD and a
core AS in ISD 2. Similarly, (down, (2, x), G) is for down-
segments between any core AS in ISD 2 and destination G.
Authors' Addresses
Corine de Kater
SCION Association
Email: c_de_kater@gmx.ch
Nicola Rustignoli
SCION Association
Email: nic@scion.org
Samuel Hitz
Anapaya Systems
Email: hitz@anapaya.net
de Kater, et al. Expires 5 September 2024 [Page 63]
