Internet DRAFT - draft-hoffman-schneier-4270bis
draft-hoffman-schneier-4270bis
Network Working Group P. Hoffman
Internet-Draft VPN Consortium
Obsoletes: 4270 (if approved) B. Schneier
Intended status: Informational Counterpane Internet Security
Expires: October 31, 2013 April 29, 2013
Attacks on Cryptographic Hashes in Internet Protocols
draft-hoffman-schneier-4270bis-02
Abstract
Announcements in the past decade of better-than-expected collision
attacks in popular hash algorithms have caused some people to
question whether common Internet protocols need to be changed, and if
so, how. This document summarizes the use of hashes in many
protocols, discusses how the collision attacks affect and do not
affect the protocols, shows how to thwart known attacks on digital
certificates, and discusses future directions for protocol designers.
It also gives rationales for moving away from some hash algorithms
altogether and for choosing when to start using newer, presumably
better, hash algorithms in Internet protocols.
This document obsoletes RFC 4270 and introduces significant new
material that has been learned since the publication of that
document.
Status of This Memo
This Internet-Draft is submitted in full conformance with the
provisions of BCP 78 and BCP 79.
Internet-Drafts are working documents of the Internet Engineering
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This Internet-Draft will expire on October 31, 2013.
Copyright Notice
Copyright (c) 2013 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the
document authors. All rights reserved.
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This document is subject to BCP 78 and the IETF Trust's Legal
Provisions Relating to IETF Documents
(http://trustee.ietf.org/license-info) in effect on the date of
publication of this document. Please review these documents
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described in the Simplified BSD License.
Table of Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Hash Algorithms and Attacks on Them . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1. Currently Known Attacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3. How Internet Protocols Use Hash Algorithms . . . . . . . . . 5
4. Hash Collision Attacks and Non-repudiation of Digital
Signatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5. Hash Collision Attacks and Digital Certificates from Trusted
Third Parties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.1. Reducing the Likelihood of Hash-based Attacks on PKIX
Certificates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
6. Cost of Creating Collisions in SHA-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
7. The SHA-3 Competition and the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
8. Future Attacks and Their Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
9. Security Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
10. Informative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Appendix A. Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Authors' Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1. Introduction
In summer 2004, a team of researchers showed concrete evidence that
the MD5 hash algorithm was susceptible to collision attacks
[MD5-attack]. In early 2005, the same team demonstrated a similar
attack on a variant of the SHA-1 [RFC3174] hash algorithm, with a
prediction that the normally used SHA-1 would also be susceptible
with a large amount of work (but at a level below what should be
required if SHA-1 worked properly) [SHA-1-attack]; that work has been
improved on more recently [Stevens]. Also in early 2005, researchers
showed a specific construction of PKIX certificates [RFC3280] that
use MD5 for signing [PKIX-MD5-construction], and another researcher
showed a faster method for finding MD5 collisions (eight hours on
1.6-GHz computer) [MD5-faster].
Because of these announcements, there was a great deal of discussion
by cryptography experts, protocol designers, and other concerned
people about what, if anything, should be done based on the news.
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Unfortunately, some of these discussions have been based on erroneous
interpretations of both the news and on how hash algorithms are used
in common Internet protocols.
Hash algorithms are used by cryptographers in a variety of security
protocols, for a variety of purposes, at all levels of the Internet
protocol stack. They are used because they have two security
properties: to be "one way" and "collision free". (There is more
about these properties in the next section; they're easier to explain
in terms of breaking them.) The attacks have demonstrated that one
of those security properties is not true. While it is certainly
possible, and at a first glance even probable, that the broken
security property will not affect the overall security of many
specific Internet protocols, the conservative security approach is to
change hash algorithms. The Internet protocol community needs to
migrate in an orderly manner away from SHA-1 and MD5 -- especially
MD5 -- and toward more secure hash algorithms, namely the SHA-2
family[RFC6234].
This document summarizes what is currently known about hash
algorithms and the Internet protocols that use them. It also gives
advice on how to avoid the currently known problems with MD5 and
SHA-1.
A high-level summary of the current situation is:
o Both MD5 and SHA-1 have attacks against them, the attacks against
MD5 being much more severe than the attacks against SHA-1.
o The attacks against MD5 are practical on any modern computer.
o The attacks against SHA-1 are practical for some attackers now,
and will be more practical for more attackers in the near future.
o Attackers are able to use collisions in PKIX certificates to
generate certificates that can act as trusted entities to create
other certificates.
o Many common Internet protocols use hashes in ways that are
unaffected by these attacks.
o Most of the affected protocols use digital signatures.
o Better hash algorithms will reduce the susceptibility of these
attacks to an acceptable level for all users.
2. Hash Algorithms and Attacks on Them
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A "perfect" hash algorithm has a few basic properties. The algorithm
converts a chunk of data (normally, a message) of any size into a
fixed-size result. The length of the result is called the "hash
length" and is often denoted as "L"; the result of applying the hash
algorithm on a particular chunk of data is called the "hash value"
for that data. Any two different messages of any size should have an
exceedingly small probability of having the same hash value,
regardless of how similar or different the messages are.
This description leads to two mathematical results. Finding a pair
of messages M1 and M2 that have the same hash value takes 2^(L/2)
attempts. For any reasonable hash length, this is an impossible
problem to solve (collision free). Also, given a message M1, finding
any other message M2 that has the same hash value as M1 takes 2^L
attempts. This is an even harder problem to solve (one way).
Note that this is the description of a perfect hash algorithm; if the
algorithm is less than perfect, an attacker can expend less than the
full amount of effort to find two messages with the same hash value.
There are two categories of attacks.
Attacks against the "collision free" property:
o A "collision attack" allows an attacker to find two messages M1
and M2 that have the same hash value in fewer than 2^(L/2)
attempts.
Attacks against the "one way" property:
o A "first-preimage attack" allows an attacker who knows a desired
hash value to find a message that results in that value in fewer
than 2^L attempts.
o A "second-preimage attack" allows an attacker who has a desired
message M1 to find another message M2 that has the same hash value
in fewer than 2^L attempts.
The two preimage attacks are very similar. In a first-preimage
attack, you know a hash value but not the message that created it,
and you want to discover any message with the known hash value; in
the second-preimage attack, you have a message and you want to find a
second message that has the same hash. Attacks that can find one
type of preimage can often find the other as well.
When analyzing the use of hash algorithms in protocols, it is
important to differentiate which of the two properties of hashes are
important, particularly now that the collision-free property is
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becoming weaker for currently popular hash algorithms. It is
certainly important to determine which parties select the material
being hashed. Further, as shown by some of the early work,
particularly [PKIX-MD5-construction], it is also important to
consider which party can predict the material at the beginning of the
hashed object.
2.1. Currently Known Attacks
All the currently known practical or almost-practical attacks on MD5
and SHA-1 are collision attacks. This is fortunate: significant
first- and second-preimage attacks on a hash algorithm would be much
more devastating in the real world than collision attacks, as
described later in this document.
It is also important to note that the current collision attacks
require at least one of the two messages to have a fair amount of
structure in the bits of the message. This means that finding two
messages that both have the same hash value *and* are useful in a
real-world attack is more difficult than just finding two messages
with the same hash value.
Since the time that the collision attacks were first discovered, some
attackers have used them to bootstrap other more devastating types of
attacks. Probably the most significant is [Chosen-Prefix], which
shows how to use collisions to forge new CA certificates that would
be accepted by web browsers at the time. The "Flame" worm attack
discovered in 2012 relied on spoofed Microsoft code-signing
certificates that were acquired using the collision reduction attack
on MD5 [Flame-Microsoft].
3. How Internet Protocols Use Hash Algorithms
Hash algorithms are used in many ways on the Internet. Most
protocols that use hash algorithms do so in a way that makes them
immune to harm from collision attacks. This is not by accident: good
protocol designers develop their protocols to withstand as many
future changes in the underlying cryptography as possible, including
attacks on the cryptographic algorithms themselves.
Uses for hash algorithms include:
o Non-repudiable digital signatures on messages. Non-repudiation is
a security service that provides protection against false denial
of involvement in a communication. S/MIME and OpenPGP allow mail
senders to sign the contents of a message they create, and the
recipient of that message can verify whether or not the signature
is actually associated with the message. A message is used for
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non-repudiation if the message is signed and the recipient of the
message can later use the signature to prove that the signer
indeed created the message.
o Digital signatures in certificates from trusted third parties.
Although this is similar to "digital signatures on messages",
certificates themselves are used in many other protocols for
authentication and key management.
o Challenge-response protocols. These protocols combine a public
large random number with a value to help hide the value when being
sent over unencrypted channels.
o Message authentication with shared secrets. These are similar to
challenge-response protocols, except that instead of using public
values, the message is combined with a shared secret before
hashing.
o Key derivation functions. These functions make repeated use of
hash algorithms to mix data into a random string for use in one or
more keys for a cryptographic protocol.
o Mixing functions. These functions also make repeated use of hash
algorithms to mix data into random strings, for uses other than
cryptographic keys.
o Integrity protection. It is common to compare a hash value that
is received out-of-band for a file with the hash value of the file
after it is received over an unsecured protocol such as FTP.
Of the above methods, only the first two are affected by collision
attacks, and even then, only in limited circumstances. So far, it is
believed that, in general, challenge-response protocols are not
susceptible, because the sender is authenticating a secret already
stored by the recipient. In message authentication with shared
secrets, the fact that the secret is known to both parties is also
believed to prevent any sensible attack. All key derivation
functions in IETF protocols take random input from both parties, so
the attacker has no way of structuring the hashed message.
4. Hash Collision Attacks and Non-repudiation of Digital Signatures
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The basic idea behind the collision attack on a hash algorithm used
in a digital-signature protocol is that the attacker creates two
messages that have the same hash value, causes one of them to be
signed, and then uses that signature over the other message for some
nefarious purpose. The specifics of the attack depend on the
protocol being used and what the victim does when presented with the
signed message.
The canonical example is where you create two messages, one of which
says "I will pay $10 for doing this job" and the other of which says
"I will pay $10,000 for doing this job". You present the first
message to the victim, get them to sign it, do the job, substitute
the second message in the signed authorization, present the altered
signed message (whose signature still verifies), and demand the
higher amount of money. If the victim refuses, you take them to
court and show the second signed message.
Most non-repudiation attacks rely on a human assessing the validity
of the purportedly signed message. In the case of the hash-collision
attack, the purportedly signed message's signature is valid, but so
is the signature on the original message. The victim can produce the
original message, show that they signed it, and show that the two
hash values are identical. The chance of this happening by accident
is one in 2^L, which is infinitesimally small for either MD5 or
SHA-1.
In other words, to thwart a hash collision attack in a non-
repudiation protocol where a human is using a signed message as
authorization, the signer needs to keep a copy of the original
message they signed. Messages that have other messages with the same
hash must be created by the same person, and do not happen by
accident under any known probable circumstances. The fact that the
two messages have the same hash value should cause enough doubt in
the mind of the person judging the validity of the signature to cause
the legal attack to fail (and possibly bring intentional fraud
charges against the attacker).
Thwarting hash collision attacks in automated non-repudiation
protocols is potentially more difficult, because there may be no
humans paying enough attention to be able to argue about what should
have happened. For example, in electronic data interchange (EDI)
applications, actions are usually taken automatically after
authentication of a signed message. Determining the practical
effects of hash collisions would require a detailed evaluation of the
protocol.
5. Hash Collision Attacks and Digital Certificates from Trusted Third
Parties
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Digital certificates are a special case of digital signatures. In
general, there is no non-repudiation attack on trusted third parties
due to the fact that certificates have specific formatting. Digital
certificates are often used in Internet protocols for key management
and for authenticating a party with whom you are communicating,
possibly before granting access to network services or trusting the
party with private data such as credit card information.
It is therefore important that the granting party can trust that the
certificate correctly identifies the person or system identified by
the certificate. If the attacker can get a certificate for two
different identities using just one public key, the victim can be
fooled into believing that one person is someone else.
The collision attack on PKIX certificates described in early 2005
relied on the ability of the attacker to create two different public
keys that would cause the body of the certificate to have the same
hash value. For this attack to work, the attacker needs to be able
to predict the contents and structure of the certificate before it is
issued, including the identity that will be used, the serial number
that will be included in the certificate, and the start and stop
dates of the validity period for the certificate.
One effective result of this attack is that one person using a single
identity can get a digital certificate over one public key, but be
able to pretend that it is over a different public key (but with the
same identity, valid dates, and so on). Because the identity in the
two certificates is the same, there are probably no real-world
examples where such an attack would get the attacker any advantage.
At best, someone could claim that the trusted third party made a
mistake by issuing a certificate with the same identity and serial
number based on two different public keys. This is indeed far-
fetched.
After the above attack was described, many CAs continued to use the
MD5 hash function. Because of this, a group of researchers went
further and showed how to create a rogue CA that would be accepted by
all the common web browsers at the time [Chosen-Prefix]. After that,
the CAs mostly (but not completely) stopped using the MD5 hash
function, and most browsers stopped accepting signatures that used
MD5. It should be noted that the same attack would work with SHA-1,
but it would take much more effort to mount such an attack. An
estimate for the actual amount of effort is described later in this
document.
It is very important to note that collision attacks only affect the
parts of certificates that have no human-readable information in
them, such as the public keys. An attack that involves getting a
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certificate with one human-readable identity and making that
certificate useful for a second human-readable identity would require
more effort than a simple collision attack.
5.1. Reducing the Likelihood of Hash-based Attacks on PKIX Certificates
If a trusted third party who issues PKIX certificates wants to avoid
the attack described above, they should sign using a hash algorithm
for which collisions are believed to be essentially impossible, such
as those from the SHA-2 family. If they want to use weaker hashes
such as SHA-1, they can also prevent the attack by making other
signed parts of the certificate random enough to eliminate any
advantage gained by the attack. Ideas that have been suggested
include:
o making part of the certificate serial number unpredictable to the
attacker
o adding a randomly chosen component to the identity
o making the validity dates unpredictable to the attacker by skewing
each one forwards or backwards
Any of these mechanisms would increase the amount of work the
attacker needs to do to trick the issuer of the certificate into
generating a certificate that is susceptible to the attack.
6. Cost of Creating Collisions in SHA-1
At the time that this document has been prepared, a scheme for
creating collisions in SHA-1 has been widely discussed, but no
collision has been published. However, it is widely assumed that
such a collision is currently possible in non-public settings, and
that a public demonstration of a SHA-1 collision should be expected
within a few years. The current estimate is that creating a
collision will take approximately 2^60 operations [Stevens].
The following is an estimate, originated by Jesse Walker, of how much
money and time it would take to create a SHA-1 hash collision in the
future. [Walker] It uses numbers based on hardware from the time
this document is published, and has a lot of room for error.
Using the eBACS benchmarks [eBACS], SHA-1 takes about 16 cycles per
byte for 64-byte blocks on modern processors. SHA-1 processes input
data by blocks of 64 bytes, so the cost of one block of a SHA-1
operation is 16 * 64, or 2^10 cycles. If an attack of 2^60 SHA-1
operations serves as the baseline, then finding a collision costs
about 2^10 * 2^60, or 2^70, cycles.
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A CPU core today provides about 2^31 cycles per second. The state of
the art is 2^3 cores per processor, for a total of 2^3 * 2^31, or
2^34, cycles per second. A server typically has 4 processors,
increasing the total to 2^2 * 2^34, or 2^36, cycles per second.
Because there are about 2^25 seconds per year, a server can deliver
about 2^25 * 2^36, or 2^61, cycles per year, with the beginning of
2013 as a base. This is called a "server year" in this discussion.
For this discussion, we assume that Moore's law as currently applied
to server-level CPUs says that the speed will increase approximately
40% per year, or double ever two years, and this will continue for
the next decade. (Note that the authors do not have a good reference
for a respected estimate of applying Moore's law to current server-
level CPUs, and would appreciate one!).
This means that the processor power should double by 2015, double
again by 2017, and then double again by 2019. Thus, a commodity
"server year" should be about
2^1 * 2^61, or 2^62 cycles per year by 2015
2^2 * 2^61, or 2^63 cycles per year by 2017
2^4 * 2^61, or 2^65 cycles per year by 2019
2^8 * 2^61, or 2^69 cycles per year by 2021
With an attack that takes 2^69 iterations, the attack should cost
approximately
2^70 / 2^62, or 2^8 server years by 2015
2^70 / 2^63, or 2^7 server years by 2017
2^70 / 2^65, or 2^5 server years by 2019
2^70 / 2^69, or 2^1 server year by 2021
Today, Amazon rents compute time on commodity servers for about
US$0.04 per hour, or about US$350 per year. Assume that compute
rental fees remain fixed while server capacity keeps pace with
Moore's law. Then, because log2(350) is approximately 8.4, the cost
of the attack will be approximately
2^8 * 2^8.4, or about US$86K in 2015
2^7 * 2^8.4, or about US$43K in 2017
2^5 * 2^8.4, or about US$10K in 2019
2^1 * 2^8.4, or about US$700 in 2021
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A collision attack is therefore well within the range of what an
organized crime syndicate can practically budget by 2015, and
essentially any criminal by 2021.
Since this argument only takes into account commodity server hardware
and not instruction set improvements (for example, ARM 8 specifies a
SHA-1 instruction), other commodity computing devices with even
greater processing power (particularly GPUs) and custom hardware, the
need to transition away from SHA-1 because of collision resistance
functions could be more urgent than this back-of-the-envelope
analysis suggests.
7. The SHA-3 Competition and the Future
After the events in 2005, NIST decided that it needed to have a
backup hash function in case the SHA-2 family had problems similar to
those found in MD5 and SHA-1. NIST held a competition
[SHA3-competition] to design a new family of hashes that was as
strong as the SHA-2 family but was based on different underlying
technologies.
The competition was both a success and a disappointment. It was a
success in that there were many different strong candidates for the
new family, and the competition caused a leap in understanding of the
weaknesses in many proposals for hash functions. It was a
disappointment in that none of the finalists were actually faster or
provably better than the SHA-2 family.
In late 2012, NIST announced that the winner of the competition was
the Keccak hash function [KECCAK-winner]. NIST was pleased about the
properties of KECCAK, noting that it was sufficiently different from
SHA-2 to have made the competition worthwhile. At the same time,
NIST emphasized that "SHA-2 has held up well and NIST considers SHA-2
to be secure and suitable for general use" and that KECCAK is "an
essential insurance policy in case SHA-2 is ever broken".
8. Future Attacks and Their Effects
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The authors believe that everyone should start migrating to SHA-2
now, due to the weaknesses that have already been demonstrated in
both MD5 and SHA-1. There is an old saying inside the US National
Security Agency (NSA): "Attacks always get better; they never get
worse." The current collision attacks against MD5 are easily done on
a single computer; the collision attacks against SHA-1 are at the far
edge of feasibility today, but will only improve with time. It is
noted that at the time of this writing, there has still not been
shown a successful collision in SHA-1 in public; there has also not
been shown any problem with the descriptions of how such a collision
could probably be found.
It is preferable to migrate to the SHA-2 family of hashes before
there is a panic, instead of after. Just as we all migrated from
SHA-0 to SHA-1 based on some unknown vulnerability discovered inside
the NSA, we need to migrate from SHA-1 to SHA-256 based on these
attacks. SHA-256 has a 256-bit hash length. This length will give
us a much larger security margin in the event of newly discovered
attacks.
The authors acknowledge that deprecating a hash algorithm is
difficult from an operational standpoint, but it needs to be done
eventually, and this is a good time to again make a significant push
to SHA-2. When NIST finalizes the parameters and test vectors for
SHA-3, implementors might want to start adding SHA-3 to their
products. However, the authors do not believe that any push to start
using SHA-3 is warranted at any time soon.
The authors also feel that work should continue to make all Internet
protocols able to use different hash algorithms. Fortunately, most
protocols today already are capable of this; those that are not
really should be fixed soon.
9. Security Considerations
The entire document discusses security on the Internet.
The discussion in this document assumes that the only attacks on hash
algorithms used in Internet protocols are collision attacks. Some
significant preimaging attacks have already been discovered
[Preimaging-attack], but they are not yet practical. If a practical
preimaging attack is discovered, it would drastically affect many
Internet protocols. In this case, "practical" means that it could be
executed by an attacker in a meaningful amount of time for a
meaningful amount of money.
A preimaging attack that costs trillions of dollars and takes decades
to preimage one desired hash value or one message is not practical;
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one that costs a few thousand dollars and takes a few weeks might be
very practical. Even a preimaging attack that costs millions of
dollars and takes over a year would be practical in high-value
environments such as issuance of certificates.
10. Informative References
[Chosen-Prefix]
, "Short Chosen-Prefix Collisions for MD5 and the Creation
of a Rogue CA Certificate", 2009,
<http://eprint.iacr.org/2009/111.pdf>.
[Flame-Microsoft]
, "TechNet Blogs: Flame malware collision attack
explained", June 2012, <http://blogs.technet.com/b/srd/
archive/2012/06/06/more-information-about-the-digital-
certificates-used-to-sign-the-flame-malware.aspx>.
[KECCAK-winner]
, "NIST Selects Winner of Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA-3)
Competition", October 2012,
<http://www.nist.gov/itl/csd/sha-100212.cfm>.
[MD5-attack]
X. Wang, , D. Feng, , X. Lai, , and H. Yu, "Collisions for
Hash Functions MD4, MD5, HAVAL-128 and RIPEMD", August
2004, <http://eprint.iacr.org/2004/199>.
[MD5-faster]
Vlastimil Klima, , "Finding MD5 Collisions - a Toy For a
Notebook", March 2005,
<http://cryptography.hyperlink.cz/md5/MD5_collisions.pdf>.
[PKIX-MD5-construction]
Arjen Lenstra, and Benne de Weger, "On the possibility of
constructing meaningful hash collisions for public keys",
February 2005, <http://www.win.tue.nl/~bdeweger/
CollidingCertificates/ddl-final.pdf>.
[Preimaging-attack]
John Kelsey, and Bruce Schneier, "Second Preimages on
n-bit Hash Functions for Much Less than 2^n Work",
November 2004, <http://eprint.iacr.org/2004/304>.
[RFC3174] Eastlake, D. and P. Jones, "US Secure Hash Algorithm 1
(SHA1)", RFC 3174, September 2001.
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[RFC3280] Housley, R., Polk, W., Ford, W., and D. Solo, "Internet
X.509 Public Key Infrastructure Certificate and
Certificate Revocation List (CRL) Profile", RFC 3280,
April 2002.
[RFC6234] Eastlake, D. and T. Hansen, "US Secure Hash Algorithms
(SHA and SHA-based HMAC and HKDF)", RFC 6234, May 2011.
[SHA-1-attack]
Xiaoyun Wang, , Yiqun Lisa Yin, , and Hongbo Yu,
"Collision Search Attacks on SHA1", February 2005,
<http://theory.csail.mit.edu/~yiqun/shanote.pdf>.
[SHA3-competition]
, "Cryptographic Hash Algorithm Competition", October
2012,
<http://csrc.nist.gov/groups/ST/hash/sha-3/index.html>.
[Stevens] , "Cryptanalysis of MD5 and SHA-1", 2010,
<http://2012.sharcs.org/slides/stevens.pdf>.
[Walker] , "When Will We See Collisions for SHA-1?", 2012, <http://
www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2012/10/
when_will_we_se.html>.
[eBACS] Dan Bernstein, , "eBACS: ECRYPT Benchmarking of
Cryptographic Systems", 2012,
<http://bench.cr.yp.to/ebash.html>.
Appendix A. Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements from RFC 4270: The authors would like to thank the
IETF community, particularly those active on the SAAG mailing list,
for their input. We would also like to thank Eric Rescorla, Arjen
Lenstra, and Benne de Weger for material and significant comments on
the first draft of this document.
Jesse Walker contributed the analysis of the cost of creating SHA-1
collisions. [[ There will probably be more here. ]]
Authors' Addresses
Paul Hoffman
VPN Consortium
Email: paul.hoffman@vpnc.org
Hoffman & Schneier Expires October 31, 2013 [Page 14]
Internet-Draft Attacks on Hashes April 2013
Bruce Schneier
Counterpane Internet Security
Email: schneier@counterpane.com
Hoffman & Schneier Expires October 31, 2013 [Page 15]
