Internet DRAFT - draft-irtf-hrpc-political
draft-irtf-hrpc-political
Human Rights Protocol Considerations Research Group N. ten Oever
Internet-Draft University of Amsterdam
Intended status: Informational September 28, 2019
Expires: March 31, 2020
Notes on networking standards and politics
draft-irtf-hrpc-political-07
Abstract
The IETF cannot ordain what standards or protocols are to be used on
networks, but the standards development process in the IETF does have
an impact on society through its normative standards setting process.
This document aims to bring about a better understanding on the
political nature of standards and protocols. Among other things, the
IETF's work affects what is perceived as technologically possible and
useful where networking technologies are being deployed, and its
standards reflect what is considered by the technical community to be
feasible and good practice. Whereas there might not be agreement
among the Internet protocol community on the specific political
nature of the technological development process and its outputs, it
is generally agreed that standards and protocols are both products of
a political process, and they can also be used for political means.
Status of This Memo
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This Internet-Draft will expire on March 31, 2020.
Copyright Notice
Copyright (c) 2019 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the
document authors. All rights reserved.
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Table of Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Vocabulary Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3. Research Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4. Technology and Politics: a review of literature and community
positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.1. Technology is value neutral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.2. Some protocols are political sometimes . . . . . . . . . 6
4.3. All protocols are political sometimes . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.4. The network of networks has its own logic and values . . 6
4.5. Protocols are inherently political . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
7. Security Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
8. IANA Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
9. Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
10. Research Group Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
11. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
11.1. Informative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
11.2. URIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Author's Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1. Introduction
"Standards are recipes for reality."
- Lawrence Busch
"As standards emerge from contested contexts, that
immediately function as a means of control within the
political and economic order."
- Andrew L. Russell
"The Internet isn't value-neutral, and neither is the IETF."
-{{RFC3935}}
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Recently there has been increased discussion in the IRTF and IETF on
the relation between Internet protocols and human rights [RFC8280],
which spurred discussion of the value neutrality and political nature
of standards. The network infrastructure is on the one hand
designed, described, developed, standardized and implemented by the
Internet community, while on the other hand the Internet community
and Internet users are affected by the technology. Companies,
citizens, governments, standards development bodies, public opinion
and public interest groups all play a part in these discussions.
This document outlines different views on the relation between
politics, standards, and protocols, and seeks explore the question
whether standards and protocols are political, and if so, how.
This question in not necessarily a new one. The design of the
Internet, and its codification through protocols and standards, is a
technical issue with great political and economic impacts, as is
described in [RFC0613] and [RFC3271]. The early Internet community
already realized that it needed to make decisions on political issues
such as:
- internationalization, expanding the network outside of the United
States [BramanI];
- access, how people are able to access the network, and who has
control [RFC0101];
- privacy and security, what level of secrecy should be considered
and expected on the network [BramanIII];
as well as use of the network by different groups with different
needs and requirements, such as:
- the military [RFC0164] [RFC0316];
- governments [RFC0144] [RFC0286] [RFC0313] [RFC0542] [RFC0549];
- and non-governmental entities [RFC0196].
Sandra Braman has foregrounded these political consideration in
historical RFC in her extensively analysis of these documents
[BramanII]. This document seeks to understand how this is relevant
for current day Internet standardization and protocol design. The
coordinating of transnational stakeholders in a process of
negotiation and agreement through the development of common rules is
a form of global governance [Nadvi]. Standards are among the
mechanisms by which this governance is achieved, although this
process is not exclusively undertaken by transnational corporations.
Conformance to certain standards is often a basic condition of
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participation so there are strong economic and political incentives
to conform, even in the absence of legal requirements [Russell].
This documents builds on that research and seeks to increase
understanding about what this means in the context of Internet
protocols and the entities that design, develop, and standardize
them.
2. Vocabulary Used
Politics (from Greek: Politika: Politika, definition "affairs of the
commons") is the process of making decisions applying to all
members of a diverse group with conflicting interests. More
narrowly, it refers to achieving and exercising positions of
governance or organized control over a community. Furthermore,
politics is the study or practice of the distribution of power and
resources within a given community as well as the
interrelationship(s) between communities. (adapted from
[HagueHarrop])
Affordances The possibilities that are provided to an actor through
the ordering of an environment by a technology. This means that a
technology does not determine what is possible, but that it
invites specific kinds of behavior, and in that process shapes the
behavior of users, without aboslutely determining it.
Protocols 'Protocols are rules governing communication between
devices or applications, and the creation or manipulation of any
logical or communicative artifacts concomitant with such
communication.' [Sisson]
Standards 'A standard is an agreed-upon way of doing something or
measuring something.' [Sisson]
Internet Standards 'An Internet Standard is a specification that is
stable and well-understood, is technically competent, has
multiple, independent, and interoperable implementations with
substantial operational experience, enjoys significant public
support, and is recognizably useful in some or all parts of the
Internet.' [RFC2026]
3. Research Question
To bring about a better understanding on the political nature of
standards and protocols, this documents asks the questions: If, and
if so how, are protocols, standards, and politics interrelated?
Exploring this question aims to inform discussions in the IETF, IRTF,
and the wider Internet infrastructure and architecture community.
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4. Technology and Politics: a review of literature and community
positions
In 1993 the Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility stated
that 'the Internet should meet public interest objectives'.
Similarly, [RFC3935] states that 'The Internet isn't value-neutral,
and neither is the IETF.'. Ethics and the Internet was already a
topic of an RFC by the IAB in 1989 [RFC1087], when the Internet was
still looking entirely different. Nonetheless there has been a
recent uptick in discussions within the IETF and IRTF about the
impact of Internet protocols on human rights [RFC8280], and more
generally in public debate about the impact of technology on society.
This document aims to provide an overview of the spectrum of
different positions that have been observed in the IETF and IRTF
community, and have been observed during interviews, mailinglist
exchanges, and during research group sessions. These positions were
observed during participatory observation, through 39 interviews with
members of the community, the Human Rights Protocol Considerations
Research Group mailing list, and during and after the Technical
Plenary on Protocols and Human Rights during IETF98.
Without judging them on their internal or external consistency they
are represented here. Where possible we also sought to engage with
the academic literature on this topic.
4.1. Technology is value neutral
This position starts from the premise that the technical and
political are differentiated fields and that technology is 'value
free'. This is also put more explicitly by Carey: "electronics is
neither the arrival of apocalypse nor the dispensation of grace.
Technology is technology; it is a means for communication and
transportation over space, and nothing more." [Carey]. In this view
protocols only become political when it is actually being used by
humans. So the technology itself is not political, the use of the
technology is. This view sees technology as instrument;
"technologies are 'tools' standing ready to serve the purposes of
their users. Technology is deemed 'neutral,' without valuative
content of its own.'" [Feenberg]. Feenberg continues: "technology is
not inherently good or bad, and can be used to whatever political or
social ends desired by the person or institution in control.
Technology is a 'rational entity' and universally applicable. One
may make exceptions on moral grounds, but one must also understand
that the "price for the achievement of environmental, ethical, or
religious goals...is reduced efficiency." [Feenberg].
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4.2. Some protocols are political sometimes
This stance is a pragmatic approach to the problem. It states that
some protocols under certain conditions can themselves have a
political dimension. This is different from the claim that a
protocol might sometimes be used in a political way; that view is
consistent with the idea of the technology being neutral (for the
human action using the technology is where the politics lies).
Instead, this position implies that protocols could be evaluated for
its political dimension, in order to understand the extent to which
it is political.
4.3. All protocols are political sometimes
While not an absolutist standpoint it recognizes that all design
decisions are subject to the law of unintended consequences,
especially in a context where the interrelation between protocols is
hard to predict. The system consisting of the Internet and its users
is vastly complex; it is chaotic in nature; standards are voluntary;
and therefore its emergent properties cannot be predicted. This
concept strongly hinges on the general purpose aspect of information
technology and its malleability. Whereas not all (potential)
behaviours, affordances and impacts of protocols can possibly be
predicted, one could, as a point of departure, consider the impact of
proposed implementations.
4.4. The network of networks has its own logic and values
While humans create technologies, this does not mean that they are
forever under human control. A technology, once created, has its own
logic that is independent of the human actors that either create or
use the technology.
From this perspective, technologies can shape the world. As Martin
Heidegger says, "The hydroelectric plant is not built into the Rhine
River as was the old wooden bridge that joined bank with bank for
hundreds of years. Rather the river is dammed up into the power
plant. What the river is now, namely, a water power supplier,
derives from out of the essence of the power station." [Heidegger]
(p 16) The dam in the river changes the world in a way the bridge
does not, because the dam alters the nature of the river.
In the same way - in another and more recent example - the very
existence of automobiles imposes physical forms on the world
different from those that come from the electric tram or the horse-
cart. The logic of the automobile means speed and the rapid covering
of distance, which encourages suburban development and a tendency
toward conurbation. But even if that did not happen, widespread
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automobile use requires paved roads, and parking lots and structures.
These are pressures that come from the automotive technology itself,
and would not arise without that technology.
In much same way, then, networking technology, such as protocols,
creates its own demands. One of the most important conditions for a
protocol's success is its incremental deployability [RFC5218]. This
means that the network already contains constraints on what can be
deployed into it. In this sense the network of networks creates its
own paths, but also has its own objective. According to this view
the goal of the network of networks is interconnection and
connectivity; more connectivity is good for the network of networks.
Proponents of this positions also often describe the Internet as an
organism with its own unique ecosystem.
In this position it is not necessarily clear where the 'social' ends
and the 'technical' begins, and it could be argued that the
distinction itself is a social construction [BijkerLaw] or that a
real-life distinction between the two is hard to make [Bloor].
4.5. Protocols are inherently political
This position argues the opposite of 'technological neutrality'.
This position is illustrated by Postman when he writes: "the uses
made of technology are largely determined by the structure of the
technology itself" [Postman]. He states that the medium itself
"contains an ideological bias". He continues to argue that
technology is non-neutral:
(1) because of the symbolic forms in which information is encoded;
(2) because of the accessibility and speed of their information,
different media have different political biases;
(3) because of their physical form, different media have different
sensory biases;
(4) because of the conditions in which we attend to them, different
media have different social biases;
(5) because of their technical and economic structure, different
media have different content biases.
Recent scholars of Internet infrastructure and governance have also
pointed out that Internet processes and standards have become part
and parcel of political processes and public policies. Several
concrete examples are found within this approach, for instance, the
IANA transition or global innovation policy [DeNardis]. The Raven
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process in which the IETF refused to standardize wiretapping - which
resulted in [RFC2804] - was an instance where an international
governance body took a position that was perceived by many as
political, although driven by a technical argument. The process that
led to [RFC7258] is similar: the Snowden disclosures, which occurred
in the political space, engendered the IETF to act. While [RFC2804]
was a statement about how a protocol for wiretapping would _not_ be
developed, [RFC7258] was a statement that contributed to the
development of protocols such as [RFC7858], [RFC8226], and [RFC8404].
The impact of political tensions on protocol development is
summarized in [Abbate] who says: "protocols are politics by other
means," emphasizing the interests that are at play in the process of
designing standards.
This position further holds that protocols can never be understood
without their contextual embeddedness: protocols do not exist solely
by themselves but always are to be understood in a more complex
context - the stack, hardware, or nation-state interests and their
impact on civil rights. Finally, this view is that protocols are
political because they influence the socio-technical workings of
reality and society. The latter observation leads Winner to conclude
that the reality of technological progress has too often been a
scenario where innovation has dictated change for society. Those who
had the power to introduce a new technology also had the power to
largely frame the uses of the technology "with new practices,
relationships, and identities supplanting the old, -- and those who
had the wherewithal to implement new technologies often molded
society to match the needs of emerging technologies and
organizations." [Winner].
5. Discussion
Economics, competition, collaboration, openness, and political impact
have been an inherent part of the work of the IETF since its early
beginnings [Russell] [BramanII] [Abbate]. The IETF cannot ordain
which standards are to be used on the networks, and it specifically
does not determine the laws of regions or countries where networks
are being used, but it does set open standards for interoperability
on the Internet, and has done so for many of the Internet's formative
years. Because a standard is the blue-print for how to accomplish a
particular task, the adopted standards have a normative effect. The
standardization work at the IETF has direct implications on what is
perceived as technologically possible and useful where networking
technologies are being deployed, and thus its standards reflect what
is considered by the technical community as feasible and good
practice.
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Whereas there might not be agreement among the Internet protocol
community on the specific political nature of the technological
development process and its outputs, there is a general consensus
among scholars in the fields of Science and Technology Studies and
Philosopht of Technology, that technology in general, and standards
in specific can be:
- a mean for political activity (for instance by using a tool (or
protocol) to suppress freedom of expression or enhance citizenship
participation),
- an object of political activity or deliberation (this can be
foregrounded by asking who is making the decision about protocols?
Is it democratic and legitimate? Who is excluded in these spaces
of decision about protocols/standards? Who should be included,
why, and how?), ans as
- the setting of political activity (this is analyzing by asking
what are the constraints and possibilities of our particular
technological culture? How is the history of this technological
culture affecting our choices today? [Barney]
This opinion is not widely shared with the IRTF and IETF. There it
is generally agreed that standards and protocols can be products of a
political process, and they can be used for political means, but that
this is not always the case.
6. Conclusion
While understanding that 'standards emerge from contested contexts,
they immediately function as a means of control within the political
and economic order' [Russell], protocols and standards as abstract
isolated artefacts might not be political, but their design,
development, deployment, and implementation often is. Therefore we
might need to give a qualified answer to the research question, in
the sense that protocols can only be understood in part outside of
their actual shaping, use, and applied function, which is political.
There is no consensus with the Human Rights Protocol Consideration
Research Group whether this is always the case, or only in specific
cases.
Further research could explore how the political nature of the
design, development, standardization, and deployment of protocols can
be taken into account in the standards development process in order
to (1) to minimize negative unintended social consequences, (2)
ensure clear understanding of the intended consequences, (3) maintain
importance of the IETF as open standards body that facilitates global
interoperability.
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7. Security Considerations
As this draft concerns a research document, there are no security
considerations as described in [RFC3552], which does not mean that
not addressing the issues brought up in this draft will not impact
the security of end-users or operators.
8. IANA Considerations
This document has no actions for IANA.
9. Acknowledgments
Thanks to Michael Rogers, Joe Hall, Andrew Sullivan, Brian Carpenter,
Mark Perkins, S Moonesamy, Stephen Farrell, Amelia Andersdotter,
Stephane Couture, and all contributors and reviewers on the hrpc
mailinglist. Special thanks to Gisela Perez de Acha for some
thorough editing rounds.
10. Research Group Information
The discussion list for the IRTF Human Rights Protocol Considerations
Research Group is located at the e-mail address hrpc@ietf.org [1].
Information on the group and information on how to subscribe to the
list is at: https://www.irtf.org/mailman/listinfo/hrpc [2]
Archives of the list can be found at: https://www.irtf.org/mail-
archive/web/hrpc/current/index.html [3]
11. References
11.1. Informative References
[Abbate] Abbate, J., "Inventing the Internet", MIT Press , 2000,
<https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/inventing-internet>.
[Barney] Barney, D., "One nation under google", Hart House Lecture
2007 , 2007, <http://darinbarneyresearch.mcgill.ca/Work/
One_Nation_Under_Google.pdf>.
[BijkerLaw]
Bijker, W. and J. Law, "Shaping Technology/ Building
Society: Studies in Sociotechnical Change", Cambridge, MA:
MIT Press , 1992.
[Bloor] Bloor, D., "Knowledge and Social Imagery", London:
Routeledge & Kegan Paul , 1976.
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[BramanI] Braman, S., "Internationalization of the Internet by
design: The first decade", Global Media and Communication,
Vol 8, Issue 1, pp. 27 - 45 , 2012,
<http://people.tamu.edu/~Braman/
bramanpdfs/43_internationalization.pdf>.
[BramanII]
Braman, S., "The Framing Years: Policy Fundamentals in the
Internet Design Process, 1969-1979", The Information
Society Vol. 27, Issue 5, 2011 , 2010,
<http://people.tamu.edu/~Braman/
bramanpdfs/50_theframingyears.pdf>.
[BramanIII]
Braman, S., "Privacy by design: Networked computing,
1969-1979", New Media & Society, 14(5), 798-814, 2011. ,
2011, <http://people.tamu.edu/~Braman/
bramanpdfs/59_privacybydesign.pdf>.
[Carey] Carey, J., "Communication As Culture", p. 139 , 1992.
[DeNardis]
Denardis, L., "The Internet Design Tension between
Surveillance and Security", IEEE Annals of the History of
Computing (volume 37-2) , 2015, <http://is.gd/7GAnFy>.
[Feenberg]
Feenberg, A., "Critical Theory of Technology", p.5-6 ,
1991.
[HagueHarrop]
Hague, R. and M. Harrop, "Comparative Government and
Politics: An Introduction", Macmillan International Higher
Education. pp. 1-. ISBN 978-1-137-31786-5. , 2013.
[Heidegger]
Heidegger, M., "The Question Concerning Technology and
Other Essays", Garland: New York, 1977 , 1977,
<http://ssbothwell.com/documents/ebooksclub.org__The_Quest
ion_Concerning_Technology_and_Other_Essays.pdf>.
[Nadvi] Nadvi, K. and F. Waeltring, "Making sense of global
standards", In: H. Schmitz (Ed.), Local enterprises in the
global economy (pp. 53-94). Cheltenham, UK: Edward
Elgar. , 2004.
[Postman] Postman, N., "Technopoly: the Surrender of Culture to
Technology", Vintage: New York. pp. 3-20. , 1992.
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[RFC0101] Watson, R., "Notes on the Network Working Group meeting,
Urbana, Illinois, February 17, 1971", RFC 101,
DOI 10.17487/RFC0101, February 1971,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc101>.
[RFC0144] Shoshani, A., "Data sharing on computer networks",
RFC 144, DOI 10.17487/RFC0144, April 1971,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc144>.
[RFC0164] Heafner, J., "Minutes of Network Working Group meeting,
5/16 through 5/19/71", RFC 164, DOI 10.17487/RFC0164, May
1971, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc164>.
[RFC0196] Watson, R., "Mail Box Protocol", RFC 196,
DOI 10.17487/RFC0196, July 1971,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc196>.
[RFC0286] Forman, E., "Network Library Information System", RFC 286,
DOI 10.17487/RFC0286, December 1971,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc286>.
[RFC0313] O'Sullivan, T., "Computer based instruction", RFC 313,
DOI 10.17487/RFC0313, March 1972,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc313>.
[RFC0316] McKay, D. and A. Mullery, "ARPA Network Data Management
Working Group", RFC 316, DOI 10.17487/RFC0316, February
1972, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc316>.
[RFC0542] Neigus, N., "File Transfer Protocol", RFC 542,
DOI 10.17487/RFC0542, August 1973,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc542>.
[RFC0549] Michener, J., "Minutes of Network Graphics Group meeting,
15-17 July 1973", RFC 549, DOI 10.17487/RFC0549, July
1973, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc549>.
[RFC0613] McKenzie, A., "Network connectivity: A response to RFC
603", RFC 613, DOI 10.17487/RFC0613, January 1974,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc613>.
[RFC1087] Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency and Internet
Activities Board, "Ethics and the Internet", RFC 1087,
DOI 10.17487/RFC1087, January 1989,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc1087>.
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[RFC2026] Bradner, S., "The Internet Standards Process -- Revision
3", BCP 9, RFC 2026, DOI 10.17487/RFC2026, October 1996,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc2026>.
[RFC2804] IAB and IESG, "IETF Policy on Wiretapping", RFC 2804,
DOI 10.17487/RFC2804, May 2000,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc2804>.
[RFC3271] Cerf, V., "The Internet is for Everyone", RFC 3271,
DOI 10.17487/RFC3271, April 2002,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc3271>.
[RFC3552] Rescorla, E. and B. Korver, "Guidelines for Writing RFC
Text on Security Considerations", BCP 72, RFC 3552,
DOI 10.17487/RFC3552, July 2003,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc3552>.
[RFC3935] Alvestrand, H., "A Mission Statement for the IETF",
BCP 95, RFC 3935, DOI 10.17487/RFC3935, October 2004,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc3935>.
[RFC5218] Thaler, D. and B. Aboba, "What Makes for a Successful
Protocol?", RFC 5218, DOI 10.17487/RFC5218, July 2008,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc5218>.
[RFC7258] Farrell, S. and H. Tschofenig, "Pervasive Monitoring Is an
Attack", BCP 188, RFC 7258, DOI 10.17487/RFC7258, May
2014, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7258>.
[RFC7858] Hu, Z., Zhu, L., Heidemann, J., Mankin, A., Wessels, D.,
and P. Hoffman, "Specification for DNS over Transport
Layer Security (TLS)", RFC 7858, DOI 10.17487/RFC7858, May
2016, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7858>.
[RFC8226] Peterson, J. and S. Turner, "Secure Telephone Identity
Credentials: Certificates", RFC 8226,
DOI 10.17487/RFC8226, February 2018,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc8226>.
[RFC8280] ten Oever, N. and C. Cath, "Research into Human Rights
Protocol Considerations", RFC 8280, DOI 10.17487/RFC8280,
October 2017, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc8280>.
[RFC8404] Moriarty, K., Ed. and A. Morton, Ed., "Effects of
Pervasive Encryption on Operators", RFC 8404,
DOI 10.17487/RFC8404, July 2018,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc8404>.
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[Russell] Russell, A., "Open standards and the digital age: History,
ideology, and networks", Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press , 2014.
[Sisson] Sisson, D., "Standards and Protocols", 2000,
<https://philosophe.com/design/standards/>.
[Winner] Winner, L., "Upon opening the black box and finding it
empty: Social constructivism and the philosophy of
technology", Science, Technology, and Human Values 18 (3)
p. 362-378 , 1993.
11.2. URIs
[1] mailto:hrpc@ietf.org
[2] https://www.irtf.org/mailman/listinfo/hrpc
[3] https://www.irtf.org/mail-archive/web/hrpc/current/index.html
Author's Address
Niels ten Oever
University of Amsterdam
EMail: mail@nielstenoever.net
ten Oever Expires March 31, 2020 [Page 14]
