Internet DRAFT - draft-li-teas-composite-network-slices
draft-li-teas-composite-network-slices
Network Working Group Z. Li
Internet-Draft J. Dong
Intended status: Informational Huawei Technologies
Expires: 5 September 2024 R. Pang
China Unicom
Y. Zhu
China Telecom
L. Contreras
Telefonica
4 March 2024
Realization of Composite IETF Network Slices
draft-li-teas-composite-network-slices-02
Abstract
A network slice offers connectivity services to a network slice
customer with specific Service Level Objectives (SLOs) and Service
Level Expectations (SLEs) over a common underlay network. RFC XXXX
describes a framework for network slices built in networks that use
IETF technologies. As part of that framework, the Network Resource
Partition (NRP) is introduced as a collection of network resources
that are allocated from the underlay network to carry a specific set
of network slice service traffic and meet specific SLOs and SLEs. In
some network scenarios, network slices using IETF technologies may
span multiple network domains, and they may be composed
hierarchically, which means a network slice itself may be further
sliced. In the context of 5G, a 5G end-to-end network slice consists
of three different types of network technology segments: Radio Access
Network (RAN), Transport Network (TN) and Core Network (CN). The
transport segments of the 5G end-to-end network slice can be provided
using network slices described in RFC XXXX.
This document first describes the possible use cases of composite
network slices built in networks that use IETF network technologies,
then it provides considerations about the realization of composite
network slices. For the multi-domain network slices, an Inter-Domain
Network Resource Partition Identifier (Inter-domain NRP ID) may be
introduced. For hierarchical network slices, the structure of the
NRP ID is discussed. And for the interaction between IETF network
slices with 5G network slices, the identifiers of the 5G network
slices may be introduced into IETF networks. These network slice-
related identifiers may be used in the data plane, control plane and
management plane of the network for the instantiation and management
of composite network slices. This document also describes the
management considerations of composite network slices.
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Status of This Memo
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This Internet-Draft will expire on 5 September 2024.
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Table of Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2. Composite Network Slice Use Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.1. Multi-domain Network Slices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2. Hierarchical Network Slices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2.1. Per-Customer Network Slices in an Industrial Slice . 5
2.2.2. Per-Application Network Slices in a Customer Slice . 6
2.2.3. Network Slice Services in a Wholesale Network
Slice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3. Realization of Composite Network Slices . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.1. Composite Network Slice Related Identifiers . . . . . . . 8
3.2. Composite Slice Network Resource Partitioning . . . . . . 10
3.3. Data Plane Encapsulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.3.1. Multi-domain Network Slice Encapsulation . . . . . . 11
3.3.2. Hierarchical Network Slice Encapsulation . . . . . . 11
3.3.3. 5G E2E Network Slice Encapsulation . . . . . . . . . 11
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3.4. Composite Slice Control Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4. Management Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5. IANA Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6. Security Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
7. Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
8. Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
9. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
9.1. Normative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
9.2. Informative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Authors' Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1. Introduction
RFC Editor Note: Please replace "RFC XXXX" in this document with the
RFC number assigned to draft-ietf-teas-ietf-network-slices, and
remove this note.
[I-D.ietf-teas-ietf-network-slices] defines network slicing in
networks built using IETF technologies. These network slices may be
referred to as RFC XXXX Network Slices, in this document we simply
use the term "network slice" to refer to this concept when only the
network slices as described in [I-D.ietf-teas-ietf-network-slices] is
referred to.
A network slice aims to offer connectivity service to a network slice
customer with specific Service Level Objectives (SLOs) and Service
Level Expectations (SLEs) over a common underlay network.
[I-D.ietf-teas-ietf-network-slices] defines the terminologies and the
characteristics of network slices. It also discusses the general
framework, the components and interfaces for requesting and operating
network slices. The concept of a Network Resource Partition (NRP) is
introduced by [I-D.ietf-teas-ietf-network-slices] as part of the
realization of network slices. An NRP is a collection of network
resources in the underlay network, which can be used to ensure the
requested SLOs and SLEs of network slice services are met.
[I-D.ietf-teas-enhanced-vpn] describes a layered architecture and the
candidate technologies in different layers and planes for providing
NRP-based enhanced VPN services. Enhanced VPNs aim to meet the needs
of customers or applications which require connectivity services with
advanced characteristics, such as the assurance of SLOs and specific
SLEs. Enhanced VPN services can be delivered by mapping one or a
group of overlay VPNs to an NRP which is allocated with a set of
network resources. The enhanced VPN architecture and technologies
could be used for the realization of network slices.
[I-D.ietf-teas-ns-ip-mpls] describes a solution to realize network
slicing in IP/MPLS networks.
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In some network scenarios, network slices using IETF technologies may
span multiple network domains, and they may be composed
hierarchically, which means a network slice itself may be further
sliced. In the context of 5G, a 5G end-to-end network slice consists
of three different types of network technology segments: Radio Access
Network (RAN), Transport Network (TN) and Core Network (CN). The
transport segments of the 5G end-to-end network slice can be provided
using network slices described in RFC XXXX.
This document first describes the possible use cases of composite
network slices built in networks that use IETF network technologies,
then it provides considerations about the realization of composite
network slices. For the multi-domain network slices, an Inter-Domain
Network Resource Partition Identifier (Inter-domain NRP ID) may be
introduced. For hierarchical network slices, the structure of the
NRP ID is discussed. And for the interaction between IETF network
slices with 5G network slices, the identifiers of the 5G network
slices may be introduced into IETF networks. These network slice-
related identifiers may be used in the data plane, control plane and
management plane of the network for the instantiation and management
of composite network slices. This document also describes the
management considerations of composite network slices.
2. Composite Network Slice Use Cases
2.1. Multi-domain Network Slices
One typical scenario of multi-domain network slice is to support 5G
network slicing as shown in Figure 1. 5G end-to-end network slices
consists of the slice subnets in RAN, Mobile Core and Transport
networks. In the RAN and Mobile Core networks, the 5G end-to-end
network slices are identified by Single Network Slice Selection
Assistance Information (S-NSSAI). In the transport network, the 5G
network slices are mapped to one or multiple network slices as
described in RFC XXXX.
The RFC XXXX network slice itself may span multiple network domains.
It may be realized as an inter-domain enhanced VPN service, which is
an inter-domain VPN with additional resource and performance
commitments. In the underlay network, the IETF network slices can be
mapped to an inter-domain NRP, which is the concatenation of multiple
intra-domain NRPs from different network domains.
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5G Network Slices (S-NSSAI)
o--------------------------------------------------------------------o
/----\ /----\ /----\ /----\ /----\
/ \ // \\ // \\ // \\ / \
| RAN |---| TN-1 |---| TN-2 |----| TN-3 |----| Core |
\ / \\ // \\ // \\ // \ /
\----/ \----/ \----/ \----/ \----/
Multi-domain IETF Network Slice
o--------------------------------------------------o
Multi-domain NRPs
o=========================================o
Intra-domain Intra-domain Intra-domain
NRPs NRPs NRPs
o**********o o***********o o***********o
o##########o o###########o o###########o
o@@@@@@@@@@o o@@@@@@@@@@@o o@@@@@@@@@@@o
Figure 1. Multi-domain IETF Network Slice in 5G Scenario
2.2. Hierarchical Network Slices
This section gives some example use cases of hierarchical NRP and
network slices, in which two levels of NRPs/slices are described.
More than two levels of NRPs is also possible, while it is out of the
scope of this document.
2.2.1. Per-Customer Network Slices in an Industrial Slice
A typical hierarchical network slice deployment scenario is in the
multi-industrial network case, in which a shared physical network is
used to deliver services to multiple vertical industries. Separate
NRPs and network slices are provided for different industries, such
as health-care, education, manufacturing, governmental affairs, etc.
Then within the NRP of a specific industry, it may be necessary to
create separate NRPs and network slices for specific customers.
For example, within the NRP created for the education industry, some
of the universities may require a separate NRP and network slices to
connect the branch campuses. Another example is within the NRP
created for health-care industry, some of the hospitals may require a
separate NRP and network slices for the connectivity and services
between a set of the branch hospitals.
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---------------------------------/
/ Industry-1 NRP/Slices /
/ ----------------------- /
/ / Customer Slice 1 / /
/ -----------------------/ /
/ ----------------------- /
/ / Customer Slice 2 / /
/ -----------------------/ /
/ ... /
---------------------------------/
...
---------------------------------/
/ Industry-2 NRP/Slices /
/ ----------------------- /
/ / Customer Slice 1 / /
/ -----------------------/ /
/ ----------------------- /
/ / Customer Slice 2 / /
/ -----------------------/ /
/ ... /
---------------------------------/
Figure 2. Hierarchical Network Slices: Scenario 1
2.2.2. Per-Application Network Slices in a Customer Slice
Another network slice deployment case is to provide an NRP and
network slices for some important customers as the first-level
network slices. While the customers may require to further split the
resources of their NRP into different sub-NRP and sub-slices for a
subset of applications.
For example, an NRP for a hospital may be further divided to carry
different types of medical applications, such as remote patient
monitoring, remote ultrasound diagnosis, medical image transmission
etc.
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---------------------------------/
/ Customer NRP/Slice 1 /
/ ----------------------- /
/ / APP NRP/Slice 1 / /
/ -----------------------/ /
/ ----------------------- /
/ / APP NRP/Slice 2 / /
/ -----------------------/ /
/ ... /
---------------------------------/
...
---------------------------------/
/ Customer NRP/Slice 2 /
/ ----------------------- /
/ / APP NRP/Slice 1 / /
/ -----------------------/ /
/ ----------------------- /
/ / APP NRP/Slice 2 / /
/ -----------------------/ /
/ ... /
---------------------------------/
Figure 3. Hierarchical Network Slices: Scenario 2
2.2.3. Network Slice Services in a Wholesale Network Slice
An NRP or network slice can also be delivered as a wholesale service
to other network operators. In this case, a network operator can be
the customer of a network slice, and it may also need to deliver IETF
network slice services to its customers. This is similar to the
Carrier's Carrier VPN service, while additional requirements on the
SLOs and SLEs required by the second-level network slice customer is
fulfilled by a wholesale NRP.
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---------------------------------/
/ Wholesale NRP/Slice 1 /
/ ----------------------- /
/ / Customer Slice 1 / /
/ -----------------------/ /
/ ----------------------- /
/ / Customer Slice 2 / /
/ -----------------------/ /
/ ... /
---------------------------------/
...
---------------------------------/
/ Wholesale NRP/Slice 2 /
/ ----------------------- /
/ / Customer Slice 1 / /
/ -----------------------/ /
/ ----------------------- /
/ / Customer Slice 2 / /
/ -----------------------/ /
/ ... /
---------------------------------/
Figure 4. Hierarchical Network Slices: Scenario 3
3. Realization of Composite Network Slices
The realization of composite network slices may require additional
capability and functionality in the data plane, control plane and
management plane technologies. Considerations about the realization
of composite network slices are analyzed in the following
subsections.
3.1. Composite Network Slice Related Identifiers
For the realization of multi-domain network slices, the following
network slice related identifiers may be introduced in the management
plane, control plane and/or the data plane.
* Intra-domain NRP ID: This is the NRP-ID as defined in
[I-D.ietf-teas-nrp-scalability]. It is used by network nodes in a
network domain to determine the set of local network resources
allocated to an NRP.
* Multi-domain NRP ID: This identifier uniquely identifies a multi-
domain NRP. In each network domain, the domain border nodes can
map the multi-domain NRP-ID to the intra-domain NRP IDs used
within the local network domain.
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A multi-domain network slice may be supported by a multi-domain NRP
in the underlay, which consists of the concatenation of multiple
intra-domain NRPs. Each intra-domain NRP can be identified using a
network-wide NRP ID. In order to facilitate the concatenation of
multiple intra-domain NRPs into a multi-domain NRP, the multi-domain
NRP may be needed in the management plane, control plane and/or data
plane.
In the context of 5G end-to-end network slicing, in order to
facilitate the mapping and management of 5G network slice services in
the IETF network slices, the identifier of 5G network slice may be
introduced into the transport network.
* 5G network slice ID (S-NSSAI): This identifies a 5G network slice.
When required, S-NSSAI may be used by network entities of RFC XXXX
network slices for traffic mapping and monitoring at the 5G
network slice granularity.
For network slice scenarios which are not specific to 5G network
slicing, some types of service identifiers may be used by network
entities of RFC XXXX network slices to classify and map the network
slice services to the corresponding NRPs.
The requirement of multi-domain NRP-ID depends on how the intra-
domain NRP IDs are managed. In some network scenarios, different
network domains are under the same network administration, and can
have consistent NRP ID assignment, then the same intra-domain NRP ID
can be used in different network domains, and may be further used to
identify a multi-domain NRP built across these domains. In other
network scenarios, a multi-domain NRP ID would be needed for the
identification of the concatenation of intra-domain NRPs in different
domains. The awareness of the S-NSSAI and other network slice
service identifiers depend on whether the performance of the 5G or
other network slice services need to be monitored in the transport
network.
For the realization of hierarchical network slices, since network
resources may be partitioned hierarchically, different NRP IDs may be
used to identify the first-level NRPs and the second-level NRPs
respectively.
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3.2. Composite Slice Network Resource Partitioning
For multi-domain network slices, in order to fulfil the end-to-end
network slice service commitment, it is important that the network
resources in each of the involved network domain can be partitioned
for different NRPs, so that intra-domain NRPs can be created in each
network domain, which together constitute the multi-domain NRPs for
the end-to-end network slice services.
For hierarchical network slices, the network resources in the
underlay network may need to be partitioned hierarchically. Taking a
two-level hierarchical network slice as an example, the bandwidth and
associated resources of a physical interface may need to be
partitioned into two levels.
In different network domains or different network slice hierarchy,
different technologies may be used for the data plane resource
partitioning. For example, for resource partitioning of multi-domain
network slices, it could be the case that in one network domain, the
network resources are partitioned using Flexible Ethernet (FlexE),
while in another network domain, the network resources may be
partitioned using virtual sub-interfaces or dedicated queues under
the same interface. Similarly, for hierarchical network resource
partitioning, the network resources of the first-level NRPs may be
partitioned using separate FlexE or virtual sub-interfaces with
guaranteed link bandwidth, while the second-level NRPs may be further
partitioned using virtual data channels under the FlexE or virtual
sub-interfaces.
3.3. Data Plane Encapsulation
The considerations about the data plane encapsulation is mainly
related to the mechanisms used to determine to which network slice a
data packet belongs.
At the ingress of an IETF network slice, service flows of network
slice can be classified and mapped to corresponding NRPs using
flexible matching rules based on operators' local policy, so that the
set of network resources of the corresponding NRPs can be used for
processing and forwarding the service packet. Such matching can be
done based on one or multiple fields in the data packet. While on
the intermediate network nodes, a dedicated data plane NRP ID
[I-D.ietf-teas-nrp-scalability] can facilitate the identification of
the NRP a packet belongs to.
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3.3.1. Multi-domain Network Slice Encapsulation
When network slice service packets traverse a multi-domain NRP, the
multi-domain NRP ID may be carried in the packet, then the border
nodes of each network domain can use it to determine the local domain
NRP according to the mapping relationship between the multi-domain
NRP ID and the local intra-domain NRP ID. The intra-domain NRP ID
may also be carried in the packet for the NRP-specific packet
processing on network nodes in the local domain. This requires that
the involved network domains are considered as in the same trusted
domain, in which the assignment of multi-domain NRP IDs is possible.
3.3.2. Hierarchical Network Slice Encapsulation
For hierarchical IETF network slices, each level of the hierarchical
NRP needs to be identified using some fields in the data packet. One
possible approach is to use NRP-specific resource-aware SIDs
[I-D.ietf-spring-resource-aware-segments] to identify the set of
resources allocated in the first-level NRPs, then use a dedicated NRP
ID to identify the set of resources in the second-level NRPs.
Alternatively, for better scalability
[I-D.ietf-teas-nrp-scalability], dedicated NRP IDs may be used to
identify both the first-level NRPs and the second-level NRPs. When
dedicated NRP ID is used for both hierarchies, there are different
options in the design of the data plane NRP ID for hierarchical
network slices.
* The first option is to use a unified data plane NRP ID for both
the first-level NRPs and the second-level NRPs. In this case, the
first-level NRPs and the second-level NRPs are distinguished using
different NRP ID values.
* The second option is to use hierarchical identifiers for the
first-level NRP and the second-level NRP respectively. In this
case, the first part of the identifier may be used to identify the
first-level NRP, and the second part of the identifier may be used
to identify the second-level NRP. Depends on the data plane
technologies used, the hierarchical NRP may be encapsulated in one
field, or may be positioned in separate fields in the packet.
3.3.3. 5G E2E Network Slice Encapsulation
In the context of 5G end-to-end network slicing, in order to
facilitate the mapping and management of 5G network slice services to
IETF network slices, the S-NSSAI of 5G network slice may be carried
in the data packet sent to the transport network. For network
slicing scenarios which are not specific to 5G, other types of
service identifiers may be carried in the packet sent to the
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transport network.
3.4. Composite Slice Control Plane
The control plane of multi-domain IETF network slices would be
similar to that of the Inter-AS VPN services [RFC4364], possibly with
additional information of network slice related characteristics
signaled in the control plane. The Inter-AS Option C mode is
preferred due to the simplicity in network slice service endpoints
provisioning, which requires to establish multi-domain NRPs in the
underlay network. The Option A or Option B mode of inter-domain VPN
may also be used for multi-domain IETF network slices, while they are
not the focus of this document.
In each network domain, the provisioning and distribution of the
intra-domain NRP information may be done via either the local domain
network slice controllers or a distributed control plane, then the
multi-domain NRP is realized as the concatenation of multiple intra-
domain NRPs. The allocation of the multi-domain NRP-ID and the
mapping relationship between the multi-domain NRP ID and intra-domain
NRP ID in each domain can be done by a IETF network slice controller
which is responsible for multiple network domains. Alternatively,
distributed control plane may be used to advertise or signal the
necessary information for stitching the NRP-specific paths of intra-
domain NRPs into a multi-domain NRP-specific path. For 5G end-to-end
network slices, when S-NSSAI is carried in the network slice service
packets, the IETF network slice controller may be responsible for the
provisioning of the mapping relationship between the S-NSSAIs and the
multi-domain NRP IDs at the edge of the transport network.
For hierarchical network slices, the control plane is responsible for
the distribution of the attributes and states of NRPs in different
hierarchy both among network nodes in the NRP and to the network
controller. According to the modeling of network resource
partitioning in different hierarchy, the NRP information may be
advertised as either layer-3 or layer-2 network information, and the
control protocols may be extended correspondingly. The details of
the control plane extensions are out of the scope of this document.
4. Management Considerations
For multi-domain network slices, some coordination in management
plane among different network domains would be needed. That includes
but not limited to the planning of intra-domain NRPs to meet the same
or similar set of SLO and SLEs, the allocation and mapping of intra-
domain NRP IDs with the multi-domain NRP IDs.
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For the hierarchical network slices, the management system of network
operator needs to provide life-cycle management to both the first-
level and the second-level NRPs and network slices. The first-level
and second-level NRPs and network slices may be managed separately,
while the relationship between the first-level and second-level NRPs
and network slices also need to be maintained in the management
system. Thus management system may need to support additional
functions and procedures for the management of hierarchical network
slices. Further analysis of management plane requirements is for
future study.
5. IANA Considerations
This document makes no request of IANA.
Note to RFC Editor: this section may be removed on publication as an
RFC.
6. Security Considerations
Several broad security considerations exist, and Section 6 of
[I-D.ietf-teas-ietf-network-slices] highlights several important
security aspects for network slice deployment and operation. These
security considerations will apply to the architecture and techniques
outlined in this document and multi-domain NRPs for end-to-end
network slices.
Ensuring that only authorised customers have access to end-to-end
network slices is important. In addition, malicious intent to
access, delete or modify the end-to-end service should also be
mitigated or negated.
The control plane may distribute attributes of different levels of
hierarchical NRPs among network nodes, including communicating this
information to the controller. Therefore, secure methods will be
required to disseminate, control, and store NRP related information.
Multiple data plane methods are applicable for instantiating the end-
to-end network slice services. However, these techniques have
security advantages and disadvantages and must be considered when
deploying multi-domain and hierarchical network slices. In addition,
some encapsulation methods will have stronger security or encryption
capabilities that may be required for certain customer slice
applications where confidentiality or securing data being transmitted
across the end-to-end slice is needed.
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Future versions of this document will expand the security discussion
and propose techniques to address security concerns, and highlight
any missing requirements specific to this document.
7. Contributors
Zhibo Hu
Email: huzhibo@huawei.com
8. Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Daniel King for his review and
comments.
9. References
9.1. Normative References
[I-D.ietf-teas-enhanced-vpn]
Dong, J., Bryant, S., Li, Z., Miyasaka, T., and Y. Lee, "A
Framework for NRP-based Enhanced Virtual Private Network",
Work in Progress, Internet-Draft, draft-ietf-teas-
enhanced-vpn-17, 25 December 2023,
<https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/draft-ietf-teas-
enhanced-vpn-17>.
[I-D.ietf-teas-ietf-network-slices]
Farrel, A., Drake, J., Rokui, R., Homma, S., Makhijani,
K., Contreras, L. M., and J. Tantsura, "A Framework for
Network Slices in Networks Built from IETF Technologies",
Work in Progress, Internet-Draft, draft-ietf-teas-ietf-
network-slices-25, 14 September 2023,
<https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/draft-ietf-teas-
ietf-network-slices-25>.
9.2. Informative References
[I-D.ietf-spring-resource-aware-segments]
Dong, J., Miyasaka, T., Zhu, Y., Qin, F., and Z. Li,
"Introducing Resource Awareness to SR Segments", Work in
Progress, Internet-Draft, draft-ietf-spring-resource-
aware-segments-08, 23 October 2023,
<https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/draft-ietf-spring-
resource-aware-segments-08>.
[I-D.ietf-teas-nrp-scalability]
Dong, J., Li, Z., Gong, L., Yang, G., Mishra, G. S., and
F. Qin, "Scalability Considerations for Network Resource
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Partition", Work in Progress, Internet-Draft, draft-ietf-
teas-nrp-scalability-03, 21 October 2023,
<https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/draft-ietf-teas-
nrp-scalability-03>.
[I-D.ietf-teas-ns-ip-mpls]
Saad, T., Beeram, V. P., Dong, J., Wen, B., Ceccarelli,
D., Halpern, J. M., Peng, S., Chen, R., Liu, X.,
Contreras, L. M., Rokui, R., and L. Jalil, "Realizing
Network Slices in IP/MPLS Networks", Work in Progress,
Internet-Draft, draft-ietf-teas-ns-ip-mpls-03, 26 November
2023, <https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/draft-ietf-
teas-ns-ip-mpls-03>.
[RFC4364] Rosen, E. and Y. Rekhter, "BGP/MPLS IP Virtual Private
Networks (VPNs)", RFC 4364, DOI 10.17487/RFC4364, February
2006, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc4364>.
Authors' Addresses
Zhenbin Li
Huawei Technologies
Huawei Campus, No. 156 Beiqing Road
Beijing
100095
China
Email: lizhenbin@huawei.com
Jie Dong
Huawei Technologies
Huawei Campus, No. 156 Beiqing Road
Beijing
100095
China
Email: jie.dong@huawei.com
Ran Pang
China Unicom
Email: pangran@chinaunicom.cn
Yongqing Zhu
China Telecom
Email: zhuyq8@chinatelecom.cn
Li, et al. Expires 5 September 2024 [Page 15]
Internet-Draft Composite IETF Network Slices March 2024
Luis M. Contreras
Telefonica
Email: luismiguel.contrerasmurillo@telefonica.com
Li, et al. Expires 5 September 2024 [Page 16]
