Internet DRAFT - draft-mattsson-tls-psk-ke-dont-dont-dont
draft-mattsson-tls-psk-ke-dont-dont-dont
Transport Layer Security J. Preuß Mattsson
Internet-Draft Ericsson
Intended status: Standards Track 19 January 2023
Expires: 23 July 2023
NULL Encryption and Key Exchange Without Forward Secrecy are Discouraged
draft-mattsson-tls-psk-ke-dont-dont-dont-05
Abstract
Massive pervasive monitoring attacks using key exfiltration and made
possible by key exchange without forward secrecy have been reported.
If key exchange without Diffie-Hellman is used, static exfiltration
of the long-term authentication keys enables passive attackers to
compromise all past and future connections. Malicious actors can get
access to long-term keys in different ways: physical attacks,
hacking, social engineering attacks, espionage, or by simply
demanding access to keying material with or without a court order.
Exfiltration attacks are a major cybersecurity threat. If NULL
encryption is used an on-path attacker can read all application data.
The use of psk_ke and NULL encryption are not following zero trust
principles of minimizing the impact of breach and governments have
already made deadlines for their deprecation. This document
evaluates TLS pre-shared key exchange modes, (EC)DHE groups,
signature algorithms, and cipher suites and downgrades many entries
to "N" and "D" where "D" indicates that the entries are
"Discouraged".
About This Document
This note is to be removed before publishing as an RFC.
The latest revision of this draft can be found at
https://emanjon.github.io/draft-mattsson-tls-psk-ke-dont-dont-dont/
draft-mattsson-tls-psk-ke-dont-dont-dont.html. Status information
for this document may be found at https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/
draft-mattsson-tls-psk-ke-dont-dont-dont/.
Discussion of this document takes place on the Transport Layer
Security Working Group mailing list (mailto:tls@ietf.org), which is
archived at https://mailarchive.ietf.org/arch/browse/tls/. Subscribe
at https://www.ietf.org/mailman/listinfo/tls/.
Source for this draft and an issue tracker can be found at
https://github.com/emanjon/draft-mattsson-tls-psk-ke-dont-dont-dont.
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Status of This Memo
This Internet-Draft is submitted in full conformance with the
provisions of BCP 78 and BCP 79.
Internet-Drafts are working documents of the Internet Engineering
Task Force (IETF). Note that other groups may also distribute
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Internet-Drafts are draft documents valid for a maximum of six months
and may be updated, replaced, or obsoleted by other documents at any
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This Internet-Draft will expire on 23 July 2023.
Copyright Notice
Copyright (c) 2023 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the
document authors. All rights reserved.
This document is subject to BCP 78 and the IETF Trust's Legal
Provisions Relating to IETF Documents (https://trustee.ietf.org/
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Please review these documents carefully, as they describe your rights
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Table of Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1. Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2. Key Exchange Without Forward Secrecy . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3. Cipher Suites with NULL Encryption . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4. Obsolete Key Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5. Signature Algorithms with PKCS #1 v1.5 Padding or SHA-1 . . . 8
6. IANA Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
6.1. TLS PskKeyExchangeMode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
6.2. TLS Cipher Suites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
6.3. TLS Supported Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
6.4. TLS SignatureScheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
7. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
7.1. Normative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
7.2. Informative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
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Author's Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1. Introduction
[RFC8447] added a Recommended column to many of the TLS registries.
The Recommended column did originally non-normatively indicate
parameters that are generally recommended for implementations to
support. The meaning of the column was changed by
[I-D.ietf-tls-rfc8447bis] to indicate that the IETF has consensus
that the item is RECOMMENDED, i.e., using normative [RFC2119]
language. [I-D.ietf-tls-rfc8447bis] also introduced a third value
"D" indicating that an item is discouraged and SHOULD NOT or MUST NOT
be used. This means that all current values need to be reevaluated.
The current values also need to be reevaluated as attacks, government
requirements, and best practices have changed in the more than 4
years since [RFC8446] and [RFC8447] were published.
This document evaluates TLS pre-shared key exchange modes, (EC)DHE
groups, signature algorithms, and cipher suites and downgrades many
entries to "N" and "D" where "D" indicates that the entries are
"Discouraged". While TLS 1.2 is obsolete [RFC8446] and two NIST
compatible [NIST-TLS] implementations will therefore never negotiate
TLS 1.2 after January 1, 2024, DTLS 1.3 [RFC9147] was recently
published. DTLS 1.2 will therefore continue to be allowed for
several years and a distinction between recommended and discouraged
parameters is warranted.
1.1. Terminology
The key words "MUST", "MUST NOT", "REQUIRED", "SHALL", "SHALL NOT",
"SHOULD", "SHOULD NOT", "RECOMMENDED", "NOT RECOMMENDED", "MAY", and
"OPTIONAL" in this document are to be interpreted as described in
BCP 14 [RFC2119] [RFC8174] when, and only when, they appear in all
capitals, as shown here.
2. Key Exchange Without Forward Secrecy
Key exchange without forward secrecy enables passive monitoring
[RFC7258]. Massive pervasive monitoring attacks using key
exfiltration and made possible by key exchange without forward
secrecy have been reported [Heist], and many more have likely
happened without ever being reported. If key exchange without
Diffie-Hellman is used, access to the long-term authentication keys
enables passive attackers to compromise all past and future
connections. Malicious actors can get access to long-term keys in
different ways: physical attacks, hacking, social engineering
attacks, espionage, or by simply demanding access to keying material
with or without a court order. Exfiltration attacks are a major
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cybersecurity threat [Exfiltration].
All cipher suites without forward secrecy have been marked as NOT
RECOMMENDED in TLS 1.2 [I-D.ietf-tls-rfc8447bis], and static RSA and
DH are forbidden in TLS 1.3 [RFC8446]. A large number of TLS
profiles and implementations forbid the use of key exchange without
Diffie-Hellman.
* ANSSI states that for all versions of TLS: "The perfect forward
secrecy property must be ensured" [ANSSI-TLS].
* The general 3GPP TLS 1.2 profile follows [RFC9113] and states:
"Only cipher suites with AEAD (e.g., GCM) and PFS (e.g. ECDHE,
DHE) shall be supported" [TS.33.210].
* BoringSSL has chosen to not implement psk_ke, so that TLS 1.3
resumption always incorporates fresh key material [BoringSSL].
Unfortunately, TLS 1.3 allows key exchange without forward secrecy in
both full handshakes and resumption handshakes with the psk_ke. As
stated in [RFC8446], psk_ke does not fulfill one of the fundamental
TLS 1.3 security properties, namely "Forward secret with respect to
long-term keys". When the PSK is a group key, which is now formally
allowed in TLS 1.3 [RFC9257], psk_ke fails yet another one of the
fundamental TLS 1.3 security properties, namely "Secrecy of the
session keys" [Akhmetzyanova] [RFC9257]. PSK authentication has yet
another big inherent weakness as it often does not provide
"Protection of endpoint identities". It could be argued that PSK
authentication should be not recommended solely based on this
significant privacy weakness. The 3GPP radio access network that to
a large degree relies on PSK are fixing the vulnerabilities by
augmenting PSK with ECIES and ECDHE, see Annex C of [TS.33.501] and
[I-D.ietf-emu-aka-pfs].
Together with ffdhe2048 and rsa_pkcs1, psk_ke is one of the bad
apples in the standards track TLS 1.3 fruit basket. Organizations
like BSI [BSI] has already produced recommendations regarding its
deprecation.
* BSI states regarding psk_ke that "This mode should only be used in
special applications after consultation of an expert." and has set
a deadline that use is only allowed until 2026.
Two essential zero trust principles are to assume that breach is
inevitable or has likely already occurred [NSA-ZT], and to minimize
impact when breach occur [NIST-ZT]. One type of breach is key
compromise or key exfiltration. Different types of exfiltration are
defined and discussed in [RFC7624]. Static exfiltration where the
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keys are transferred once has a lower risk profile than dynamic
exfiltration where keying material or content is transferred to the
attacker frequently. Forcing an attacker to do dynamic exfiltration
minimizes the impact of breach and should be considered best
practice. This significantly increases the risk of discovery for the
attacker.
One way to force an attacker to do dynamic exfiltration is to
frequently rerun ephemeral Diffie-Hellman. For IPsec, ANSSI
[ANSSI-PFS] recommends enforcing periodic rekeying with ephemeral
Diffie-Hellman, e.g., every hour and every 100 GB of data, in order
to limit the impact of a key compromise. This should be considered
best practice for all protocols and systems. The Double Ratchet
Algorithm in the Signal protocol [Signal] enables very frequent use
of ephemeral Diffie-Hellman. The practice of frequently rerunning
ephemeral Diffie-Hellman follows directly from the two zero trust
principles mentioned above.
In TLS 1.3, the application_traffic_secret can be rekeyed using
key_update, a resumption handshake, or a full handshake. The term
forward secrecy is not very specific, and it is often better to talk
about the property that compromise of key A does not lead to
compromise of key B. Figure 1 illustrates the impact of some
examples of static key exfiltration when psk_ke, key_update, and
(ec)dhe are used for rekeying. Each time period Tᵢ uses a single
application_traffic_secret. ✘ means that the attacker has access to
the application_traffic_secret in that time period and can passively
eavesdrop on the communication. ✔ means that the attacker does not
have access to the application_traffic_secret. Exfiltration and
frequently rerunning EC(DHE) is discussed in Appendix F of
[I-D.ietf-tls-rfc8446bis].
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rekeying with psk_ke
static exfiltration of psk in T₃:
+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ +-----+-----+
| ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ... | ✘ | ✘ |
+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ +-----+-----+
T₀ T₁ T₂ T₃ T₄ T₅ T₆ T₇ ... Tₙ₋₁ Tₙ
<--------------------------------------------------------------->
rekeying with key_update
static exfiltration of application_traffic_secret in T₃:
+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ +-----+-----+
| ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ✘ | ... | ✘ | ✘ |
+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ +-----+-----+
T₀ T₁ T₂ T₃ T₄ T₅ T₆ T₇ ... Tₙ₋₁ Tₙ
<--------------------------------------------->
rekeying with (ec)dhe
static exfiltration of all keys in T₃:
+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ +-----+-----+
| ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✘ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ... | ✔ | ✔ |
+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ +-----+-----+
T₀ T₁ T₂ T₃ T₄ T₅ T₆ T₇ ... Tₙ₋₁ Tₙ
<--->
Figure 1: Impact of static key exfiltration in time period T3
when psk_ke, key_update, and (ec)dhe are used.
Modern ephemeral key exchange algorithms like x25519 [RFC7748] are
very fast and have small message overhead. The public keys are 32
bytes long and the cryptographic operations take 53 microseconds per
endpoint on a single core AMD Ryzen 5 5560U [eBACS-DH]. Ephemeral
key exchange with the quantum-resistant algorithm Kyber that NIST
will standardize is even faster. For the current non-standardized
version of Kyber512 the cryptographic operations take 12 microseconds
for the client and 8 microseconds for the server [eBACS-KEM].
Unfortunately, psk_ke is marked as "Recommended" in the IANA
PskKeyExchangeMode registry. This may severely weaken security in
deployments following the "Recommended" column. Introducing TLS 1.3
in 3GPP had the unfortunate and surprising effect of drastically
lowering the minimum security when TLS is used with PSK
authentication. Some companies in 3GPP have been unwilling to mark
psk_ke as not recommended as it is so clearly marked as "Recommended"
by the IETF. By labeling psk_ke as "Recommended", IETF is
legitimizing and implicitly promoting bad security practice.
This document sets the "Recommended" value of psk_ke to "D"
indicating that it is "Discouraged".
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[RFC9113] describes and classifies prohibited TLS 1.2 cipher suites
without forward secrecy. This document sets the "Recommended" value
of all cipher suites listed in Appendix A of [RFC9113] as well as
TLS_PSK_WITH_CHACHA20_POLY1305_SHA256 to "D" indicating that they are
"Discouraged".
3. Cipher Suites with NULL Encryption
Cipher suites with NULL encryption enables passive monitoring
[RFC7258] and were completely removed from TLS 1.3 [RFC8446].
Unfortunately, the independent stream document [RFC9150] reintroduced
cipher suites with NULL Encryption in TLS 1.3 even though NULL
encryption violates several of the fundamental TLS 1.3 security
properties, namely "Protection of endpoint identities",
"Confidentiality", and "Length concealment". Some companies in 3GPP
have already suggested to use [RFC9150] in QUIC but luckily this is
forbidden by [RFC9001] and hopefully it will stay like that.
Modern encryption algorithms like AES-GCM [RFC5288] are very fast and
have small message overhead. Upcoming algorithms like AEGIS
[I-D.irtf-cfrg-aegis-aead] is much faster than AES-GCM [AEGIS-PERF].
NULL encryption has no raison d'être in two-party protocols.
Two essential zero trust principles are to assume that breach is
inevitable or has likely already occurred [NSA-ZT], and to minimize
impact when breach occur [NIST-ZT]. One type of breach is an on-path
attacker present on the enterprise network. In [NIST-ZT2], NIST
states as the first basic assumption for network connectivity for any
organization that utilizes zero trust is that:
* "The entire enterprise private network is not considered an
implicit trust zone. Assets should always act as if an attacker
is present on the enterprise network, and communication should be
done in the most secure manner available. This entails actions
such as authenticating all connections and encrypting all
traffic."
This document sets the "Recommended" value of TLS_SHA256_SHA256 and
TLS_SHA384_SHA384 to "D" indicating that they are "Discouraged".
4. Obsolete Key Exchange
Government organizations like NIST, ANSSI, BSI, and NSA have already
produced recommendations regarding the deprecation of key exchange
algorithms with less than 128-bit security such as ffdhe2048. NIST
[NIST-Lifetime] and ANSSI [ANSSI-TLS] only allow 2048-bit Finite
Field Diffie-Hellman if the application data does not have to be
protected after 2030. If the application data had a security life of
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ten years, NIST and ANSSI allowed use of ffdhe2048 until December 31,
2020. BSI [BSI] allowed use of ffdhe2048 up to the year 2022. The
Commercial National Security Algorithm Suite (CNSA) [RFC9151] forbids
the use of ffdhe2048. ECDHE groups that offer less than 128-bit
security are forbidden to use in TLS 1.3. This document sets the
"Recommended" value of ffdhe2048, secp160k1, secp160r1, secp160r2,
sect163k1, sect163r1, sect163r2, secp192k1, secp192r1, sect193r1,
sect193r2, secp224k1, secp224r1m sect233k1, sect233r1, and sect239k1
to "D" indicating that they are "Discouraged".
[I-D.ietf-tls-deprecate-obsolete-kex] describes and classifies cipher
suites with obsolete key exchange methods in TLS 1.2 but does not
downgrade the "Recommended" value. This document sets the
"Recommended" value of all cipher suites listed in Appendix A of
[I-D.ietf-tls-deprecate-obsolete-kex] to "D" indicating that they are
"Discouraged".
5. Signature Algorithms with PKCS #1 v1.5 Padding or SHA-1
Recommendations regarding RSASSA-PKCS1-v1_5 in certificates varies.
The RSA Cryptography Specifications [RFC8017] specifies that "RSASSA-
PSS is REQUIRED in new applications. RSASSA-PKCS1-v1_5 is included
only for compatibility with existing applications.". BSI [BSI]
allows use of the PKCS #1 v1.5 padding scheme in certificates up to
the year 2025. The Commercial National Security Algorithm (CNSA)
[RFC9151] requires offer of rsa_pkcs1_sha384 in certificates. This
document sets the "Recommended" value of rsa_pkcs1_sha256,
rsa_pkcs1_sha384, and rsa_pkcs1_sha512 to "N".
[RFC8446] forbids the use of RSASSA-PKCS1-v1_5 in signed TLS
handshake messages. [I-D.davidben-tls13-pkcs1] registered new
RSASSA-PKCS1-v1_5 signature algorithms for use in signed TLS 1.3
handshake messages. This document sets the "Recommended" value of
rsa_pkcs1_sha256_legacy, rsa_pkcs1_sha384_legacy, and
rsa_pkcs1_sha512_legacy to "D" indicating that they are
"Discouraged".
[RFC8446] labels rsa_pkcs1_sha1 and ecdsa_sha1 as legacy algorithms
which are being deprecated and that endpoints SHOULD NOT or MUST NOT
negotiate. This document sets the "Recommended" value of
rsa_pkcs1_sha1 and ecdsa_sha1 to "D" indicating that they are
"Discouraged".
6. IANA Considerations
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6.1. TLS PskKeyExchangeMode
IANA is requested to update the TLS PskKeyExchangeMode registry under
the Transport Layer Security (TLS) Parameters heading. For the
following entry the "Recommended" value has been set to "D"
indicating that the item is "Discouraged".
+=============+=============+
| Description | Recommended |
+=============+=============+
| psk_ke | D |
+-------------+-------------+
Table 1: Downgraded TLS
PSK Key Exchange Modes
6.2. TLS Cipher Suites
IANA is requested to update the TLS Cipher Suites registry under the
Transport Layer Security (TLS) Parameters heading. For all cipher
suites listed in Appendix A of [RFC9113], all cipher suites listed in
Appendix A of [I-D.ietf-tls-deprecate-obsolete-kex], and the
following entries the "Recommended" value have been set to "D"
indicating that the items are "Discouraged".
+=======================================+=============+
| Description | Recommended |
+=======================================+=============+
| TLS_SHA256_SHA256 | D |
+---------------------------------------+-------------+
| TLS_SHA384_SHA384 | D |
+---------------------------------------+-------------+
| TLS_PSK_WITH_CHACHA20_POLY1305_SHA256 | D |
+---------------------------------------+-------------+
Table 2: Downgraded TLS Cipher Suites
6.3. TLS Supported Groups
IANA is requested to update the TLS Supported Groups registry under
the Transport Layer Security (TLS) Parameters heading. For the
following entries the "Recommended" value have been set to "D"
indicating that the items are "Discouraged".
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+=============+=============+
| Description | Recommended |
+=============+=============+
| sect163k1 | D |
+-------------+-------------+
| sect163r1 | D |
+-------------+-------------+
| sect163r2 | D |
+-------------+-------------+
| sect193r1 | D |
+-------------+-------------+
| sect193r2 | D |
+-------------+-------------+
| sect233k1 | D |
+-------------+-------------+
| sect233r1 | D |
+-------------+-------------+
| sect239k1 | D |
+-------------+-------------+
| secp160k1 | D |
+-------------+-------------+
| secp160r1 | D |
+-------------+-------------+
| secp160r2 | D |
+-------------+-------------+
| secp192k1 | D |
+-------------+-------------+
| secp192r1 | D |
+-------------+-------------+
| secp224k1 | D |
+-------------+-------------+
| secp224r1 | D |
+-------------+-------------+
| ffdhe2048 | D |
+-------------+-------------+
Table 3: Downgraded TLS
Supported Groups
6.4. TLS SignatureScheme
IANA is requested to update the TLS SignatureScheme registry under
the Transport Layer Security (TLS) Parameters heading. For the
following entries the "Recommended" value have been set to "N" or "D"
where "D" indicates that the items are "Discouraged".
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+=========================+=============+
| Description | Recommended |
+=========================+=============+
| rsa_pkcs1_sha1 | D |
+-------------------------+-------------+
| ecdsa_sha1 | D |
+-------------------------+-------------+
| rsa_pkcs1_sha256 | N |
+-------------------------+-------------+
| rsa_pkcs1_sha256_legacy | D |
+-------------------------+-------------+
| rsa_pkcs1_sha384 | N |
+-------------------------+-------------+
| rsa_pkcs1_sha384_legacy | D |
+-------------------------+-------------+
| rsa_pkcs1_sha512 | N |
+-------------------------+-------------+
| rsa_pkcs1_sha512_legacy | D |
+-------------------------+-------------+
Table 4: Downgraded TLS Signature Schemes
7. References
7.1. Normative References
[I-D.ietf-tls-deprecate-obsolete-kex]
Bartle, C. and N. Aviram, "Deprecating Obsolete Key
Exchange Methods in TLS", Work in Progress, Internet-
Draft, draft-ietf-tls-deprecate-obsolete-kex-01, 11
December 2022, <https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/
draft-ietf-tls-deprecate-obsolete-kex-01>.
[I-D.ietf-tls-rfc8447bis]
Salowey, J. A. and S. Turner, "IANA Registry Updates for
TLS and DTLS", Work in Progress, Internet-Draft, draft-
ietf-tls-rfc8447bis-02, 24 October 2022,
<https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/draft-ietf-tls-
rfc8447bis-02>.
[RFC2119] Bradner, S., "Key words for use in RFCs to Indicate
Requirement Levels", BCP 14, RFC 2119,
DOI 10.17487/RFC2119, March 1997,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc2119>.
[RFC8174] Leiba, B., "Ambiguity of Uppercase vs Lowercase in RFC
2119 Key Words", BCP 14, RFC 8174, DOI 10.17487/RFC8174,
May 2017, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc8174>.
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[RFC8446] Rescorla, E., "The Transport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol
Version 1.3", RFC 8446, DOI 10.17487/RFC8446, August 2018,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc8446>.
[RFC9113] Thomson, M., Ed. and C. Benfield, Ed., "HTTP/2", RFC 9113,
DOI 10.17487/RFC9113, June 2022,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc9113>.
[RFC9147] Rescorla, E., Tschofenig, H., and N. Modadugu, "The
Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS) Protocol Version
1.3", RFC 9147, DOI 10.17487/RFC9147, April 2022,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc9147>.
7.2. Informative References
[AEGIS-PERF]
Frank Denis, "BoringSSL AEADs comparison", October 2022,
<https://github.com/jedisct1/openssl-family-
bench/blob/master/img/boring-aeads.png>.
[Akhmetzyanova]
Akhmetzyanova, L., Alekseev, E., Smyshlyaeva, E., and A.
Sokolov, "Continuing to reflect on TLS 1.3 with external
PSK", April 2019, <https://eprint.iacr.org/2019/421.pdf>.
[ANSSI-PFS]
Agence nationale de la sécurité des systèmes
d'information, "Recommendations for securing networks with
IPsec", August 2015,
<https://www.ssi.gouv.fr/uploads/2015/09/NT_IPsec_EN.pdf>.
[ANSSI-TLS]
Agence nationale de la sécurité des systèmes
d'information, "Security Recommendations for TLS", January
2017, <https://www.ssi.gouv.fr/uploads/2017/02/security-
recommendations-for-tls_v1.1.pdf>.
[BoringSSL]
Google, "BoringSSL", January 2023,
<https://boringssl.googlesource.com/boringssl/>.
[BSI] Bundesamt für Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik,
"Technical Guideline TR-02102-2 Cryptographic Mechanisms:
Recommendations and Key Lengths Part 2 – Use of Transport
Layer Security (TLS)", February 2022, <https://www.bsi.bun
d.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/EN/BSI/Publications/
TechGuidelines/TG02102/BSI-TR-02102-2.pdf>.
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[eBACS-DH] eBACS: ECRYPT Benchmarking of Cryptographic Systems,
"Measurements of public-key Diffie–Hellman secret-sharing
systems, indexed by machine", January 2023,
<https://bench.cr.yp.to/results-dh.html>.
[eBACS-KEM]
eBACS: ECRYPT Benchmarking of Cryptographic Systems,
"Measurements of key-encapsulation mechanisms, indexed by
machine", January 2023,
<https://bench.cr.yp.to/results-kem.html>.
[Exfiltration]
APNIC, "How to: Detect and prevent common data
exfiltration attacks", March 2022,
<https://blog.apnic.net/2022/03/31/how-to-detect-and-
prevent-common-data-exfiltration-attacks/>.
[Heist] The Intercept, "How Spies Stole the Keys to the Encryption
Castle", February 2015,
<https://theintercept.com/2015/02/19/great-sim-heist/>.
[I-D.davidben-tls13-pkcs1]
Benjamin, D., "Legacy RSASSA-PKCS1-v1_5 codepoints for TLS
1.3", Work in Progress, Internet-Draft, draft-davidben-
tls13-pkcs1-00, 29 July 2019,
<https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/draft-davidben-
tls13-pkcs1-00>.
[I-D.ietf-emu-aka-pfs]
Arkko, J., Norrman, K., Torvinen, V., and J. P. Mattsson,
"Forward Secrecy for the Extensible Authentication
Protocol Method for Authentication and Key Agreement (EAP-
AKA' FS)", Work in Progress, Internet-Draft, draft-ietf-
emu-aka-pfs-08, 23 October 2022,
<https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/draft-ietf-emu-aka-
pfs-08>.
[I-D.ietf-tls-rfc8446bis]
Rescorla, E., "The Transport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol
Version 1.3", Work in Progress, Internet-Draft, draft-
ietf-tls-rfc8446bis-05, 24 October 2022,
<https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/draft-ietf-tls-
rfc8446bis-05>.
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[I-D.irtf-cfrg-aegis-aead]
Denis, F., Scotoni, F. E. R., and S. Lucas, "The AEGIS
family of authenticated encryption algorithms", Work in
Progress, Internet-Draft, draft-irtf-cfrg-aegis-aead-00, 5
August 2022, <https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/draft-
irtf-cfrg-aegis-aead-00>.
[NIST-Lifetime]
National Institute of Standards and Technology,
"Recommendation for Key Management: Part 1 – General", May
2020,
<https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/SpecialPublications/
NIST.SP.800-57pt1r5.pdf>.
[NIST-TLS] National Institute of Standards and Technology,
"Guidelines for the Selection, Configuration, and Use of
Transport Layer Security (TLS) Implementations", August
2019,
<https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/SpecialPublications/
NIST.SP.800-52r2.pdf>.
[NIST-ZT] National Institute of Standards and Technology,
"Implementing a Zero Trust Architecture", December 2022,
<https://www.nccoe.nist.gov/sites/default/files/2022-12/
zta-nist-sp-1800-35b-preliminary-draft-2.pdf>.
[NIST-ZT2] National Institute of Standards and Technology, "Zero
Trust Architecture", August 2020,
<https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/SpecialPublications/
NIST.SP.800-207.pdf>.
[NSA-ZT] National Security Agency, "Embracing a Zero Trust Security
Model", February 2021, <https://media.defense.gov/2021/
Feb/25/2002588479/-1/-1/0/
CSI_EMBRACING_ZT_SECURITY_MODEL_UOO115131-21.PDF>.
[RFC5288] Salowey, J., Choudhury, A., and D. McGrew, "AES Galois
Counter Mode (GCM) Cipher Suites for TLS", RFC 5288,
DOI 10.17487/RFC5288, August 2008,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc5288>.
[RFC7258] Farrell, S. and H. Tschofenig, "Pervasive Monitoring Is an
Attack", BCP 188, RFC 7258, DOI 10.17487/RFC7258, May
2014, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc7258>.
[RFC7624] Barnes, R., Schneier, B., Jennings, C., Hardie, T.,
Trammell, B., Huitema, C., and D. Borkmann,
"Confidentiality in the Face of Pervasive Surveillance: A
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Threat Model and Problem Statement", RFC 7624,
DOI 10.17487/RFC7624, August 2015,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc7624>.
[RFC7748] Langley, A., Hamburg, M., and S. Turner, "Elliptic Curves
for Security", RFC 7748, DOI 10.17487/RFC7748, January
2016, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc7748>.
[RFC8017] Moriarty, K., Ed., Kaliski, B., Jonsson, J., and A. Rusch,
"PKCS #1: RSA Cryptography Specifications Version 2.2",
RFC 8017, DOI 10.17487/RFC8017, November 2016,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc8017>.
[RFC8447] Salowey, J. and S. Turner, "IANA Registry Updates for TLS
and DTLS", RFC 8447, DOI 10.17487/RFC8447, August 2018,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc8447>.
[RFC9001] Thomson, M., Ed. and S. Turner, Ed., "Using TLS to Secure
QUIC", RFC 9001, DOI 10.17487/RFC9001, May 2021,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc9001>.
[RFC9150] Cam-Winget, N. and J. Visoky, "TLS 1.3 Authentication and
Integrity-Only Cipher Suites", RFC 9150,
DOI 10.17487/RFC9150, April 2022,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc9150>.
[RFC9151] Cooley, D., "Commercial National Security Algorithm (CNSA)
Suite Profile for TLS and DTLS 1.2 and 1.3", RFC 9151,
DOI 10.17487/RFC9151, April 2022,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc9151>.
[RFC9257] Housley, R., Hoyland, J., Sethi, M., and C. A. Wood,
"Guidance for External Pre-Shared Key (PSK) Usage in TLS",
RFC 9257, DOI 10.17487/RFC9257, July 2022,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc9257>.
[Signal] Signal, "The Double Ratchet Algorithm", November 2016,
<https://signal.org/docs/specifications/doubleratchet/>.
[TS.33.210]
3GPP, "TS 33.210 Network Domain Security (NDS); IP network
layer security", 3GPP TS 33.210 17.1.0 , September 2022,
<https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/
SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=2279>.
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[TS.33.501]
3GPP, "TS 33.501 Security architecture and procedures for
5G System", 3GPP TS 33.501 18.0.0 , December 2022,
<https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/
SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=3169>.
Acknowledgements
The authors want to thank Ari Keränen, Eric Rescorla, and Paul
Wouters for their valuable comments and feedback.
Author's Address
John Preuß Mattsson
Ericsson AB
SE-164 80 Stockholm
Sweden
Email: john.mattsson@ericsson.com
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