Internet DRAFT - draft-wadhwa-rtgwg-bng-cups-protocol-requirements
draft-wadhwa-rtgwg-bng-cups-protocol-requirements
gwg S. Wadhwa
Internet Draft K. DeSmedt
Intended status: Informational P. Muley
Expires: September 11, 2019 Nokia
R. Shinde
Reliance Jio
J. Newton
Vodafone
R. Hoffman
TELUS
S. Pani
Juniper Networks
March 11, 2019
Requirements for Protocol between Control and User Plane on BNG
draft-wadhwa-rtgwg-bng-cups-protocol-requirements-02.txt
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document authors. All rights reserved.
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Abstract
Traditionally, the BNG provides aggregation of fixed access nodes
(such as DSLAM and OLTs) over Ethernet and provides subscriber
management and traffic management functions for residential
subscribers. The BNG has however evolved to become a multi-access
edge device that also provides termination of subscribers over
fixed-wireless and hybrid access. An overall architecture and
interfaces required between separated control and user-plane for a
multi-access BNG are described in draft-wadhwa-rtgwg-bng-cups-
01.txt. This document discusses requirements for protocol between
subscriber-management control-plane and user-plane for BNG to
achieve separation.
Contents
1. Introduction...................................................3
1.1. Requirements Language.....................................3
2. Requirements for "CUPS protocol"...............................3
2.1. State Control Interface Requirements......................5
2.2. Extensibility.............................................8
2.3. Scalability and Performance...............................9
2.4. Transport Protocol.......................................10
2.5. In-band Control Channel Requirements.....................10
2.6. Resiliency...............................................12
2.7. Security.................................................13
3. "CUPS protocol" candidate.....................................13
4. Security Considerations.......................................14
5. Management Interface Requirements.............................14
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6. IANA Considerations...........................................15
7. References....................................................15
7.1. Normative References.....................................15
7.2. Informative References...................................16
1. Introduction
This document describes a set of requirements for protocol between
subscriber-management control and user plane for BNG, that need to
be met, in order to achieve separation. In rest of the document the
control plane is referred to as CP, user plane as UP, and the
separation is referred to as CUPS (control and user plane
separation). The protocol between control and user-plane to achieve
separation is referred to as "CUPS protocol". These requirements
should form the basis for "CUPS protocol" selection. The functional
decomposition between CP and UP, and applicability of CUPS to a BNG
that can support multiple access technologies such as fixed (DSL or
Fiber), fixed-wireless (LTE,5G) and hybrid access are described in
[CUPS].
1.1. Requirements Language
The key words "MUST", "MUST NOT", "REQUIRED", "SHALL", "SHALL NOT",
"SHOULD", "SHOULD NOT", "RECOMMENDED", "MAY", and "OPTIONAL" in this
document are to be interpreted as described in RFC 2119 [RFC2119].
2. Requirements for "CUPS protocol"
[CUPS] defines overall operation and architecture for control and
user-plane separation on BNG. It also defines key functional
interfaces between CP and UP, as shown in Fig 1, to realize the
separation. "CUPS protocol" MUST provide support for information
exchange to realize the "state control interface" and "in-band
signaling channel" as defined in [CUPS].
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+--------------------------------------+
| +--------+ +-----+ +-----+ +-----+ |
| | AAA | |PCRF | | OCS | | OSS | |
| | Server | +-----+ +-----+ +-----+ |
| +--------+ |
+----------------+---------------------+
|
|
"CUPS BNG" |
+----------------------------+------------------------------------+
| CP |
| +--------------------------+--------------------------------+ |
| | +-----------+ +------------------+ +--------+ +---------+ | |
| | | Address | | PPPoE, DHCPv4/v6 | | RADIUS | | S11/N11 | | |
| | | Pool Mmmt | | IPv6 RS/RA, | | CLIENT | +---------+ | |
| | +-----------+ | L2TP LAC | +--------+ | |
| | +------------------+ +----+ +----+ | |
| | | Gx | | Gy | | |
| | +----+ +----+ | |
| +-----------------------------------------------------------+ |
| | | | |
| | Management |In-band | State |
| | Interface |Signaling | Control |
| | |Channel | Interface |
| | | | |
| --------+--+------------------+--+----------------+---+------- |
| | | | |
| UP | UP | UP | |
| +-----+---------+ +---------+-----+ +---------+-----+ |
| | Local CP | | Local CP | | Local CP | |
| | Routing, MPLS | | Routing, MPLS | | Routing, MPLS | |
| | IGMP, BFD | | IGMP, BFD | | IGMP, BFD | |
| +---------------+ +---------------+ +---------------+ |
| | Forwarding | | Forwarding | | Forwarding | |
| | Traffic Mgmt | | Traffic Mgmt | | Traffic Mgmt | |
| +---------------+ +---------------+ +---------------+ |
| |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+
CUPS BNG System
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2.1. State Control Interface Requirements
. "CUPS protocol" MUST support convergence on BNG, where the CPEs
terminating connections on the BNG can have fixed-access (e.g.
xDSL/PON/Ethernet), fixed-wireless access (LTE/5G) or hybrid-
access (i.e. combined fixed and wireless access).
. "CUPS protocol" MUST support messages and information exchange for
node level management. There needs to exist a concept of
association between CP and UP. When the CP or UP comes online it
should setup an association with the configured or discovered
peers via a message exchange. In association setup, the nodes
should be able to exchange supported capabilities, version of
software, load/overload information, and resource information.
Also, any node-wide parameters can be exchanged during association
setup.
. "CUPS protocol" MUST allow either node to update the association
to report changed feature capabilities, overload condition,
resource exhaustion or any other node-wide parameters.
. "CUPS protocol" MUST provide support for UP to request a graceful
association release from the CP.
. "CUPS protocol" MUST support periodic node-level heartbeat
exchange between CP and UP to detect if the peer is reachable and
active.
. "CUPS protocol" MUST support exchange of messages and information
elements (IEs) between CP and UP for session level state
management on the UP.
A subscriber session is a single IP connection, such as an IPoE or
PPPoE session. A CPE can have multiple sessions, if multiple IP
connections are required (e.g. one per service, or one per device
behind the CPE). The session level state on the UP, managed from
the CP includes:
o Data-plane state for forwarding data traffic from subscriber
sessions in upstream direction (access to network), and
downstream direction (network to access).
o Forwarding state related to in-band control plane messages
(such as messages for DHCP, PPPoE, SLAAC) that are forwarded
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from CPE to CP via the UP (in upstream direction), and from
CP to CPE via the UP (in downstream direction).
. In addition to the basic forwarding state, the "CUPS protocol"
MUST support messages and information elements (IEs) for CP to
associate, update and disassociate other data-plane related state
with the session e.g. state related to:
o Filtering
o SLA management
o Statistics collection
o Credit control (usage monitoring and reporting)
o Traffic mirroring for legal intercept
o NAT
o Application (L4-L7) aware policies
. Depending on the type of access and the network between access-
nodes and the BNG, the subscriber traffic from the CPEs can be
encapsulated and transported over an L2 connection or over an L3
tunnel. Common scenarios for fixed access include Ethernet (q-in-
q,.1q), L2oGRE, L2TPv3, VxLAN, and MPLS PW. For fixed-wireless the
access is over a GTP tunnel (as defined in [CUPS]). The tunnel
transport for L3 tunneled subscriber traffic can IPv4 or IPv6. The
subscriber traffic itself can be IPv4, IPv6 or PPPoE. In case of
PPPoE, the BNG can terminate PPPoE or tunnel it over L2TP to
another gateway. The data-plane on the BNG decapsulates the
upstream (access->network) traffic and routes it towards the
network in appropriate routing-context, and optionally perform NAT
before routing. It determines the subscriber for downstream
(network->access) IP traffic, encapsulates it appropriately before
forwarding towards the access. In addition, it does traffic-
management and SLA management, maintains traffic statistics and
optionally monitors and reports usage. The "CUPS protocol" MUST
be able to carry state from CP to UP for IPv4, IPv6 and PPPoE
sessions, for various flavors of transport connections mentioned
above.
. Given the variety of access types on the CPE and type of transport
networks between access-nodes and BNG (as outlined above) , the
"CUPS protocol" MUST specify forwarding state information for the
subscriber sessions, for both data and in-band control, as
flexible packet matching rules and set of actions related to
forwarding and traffic management, rather than just fixed-format
lookup tables understood by particular UP implementation. Using
the flexible match rules and actions conveyed in the "CUPS
protocol" IEs, the UP should unambiguously be able to derive
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various lookup tables and processing in the forwarding path to
forward traffic to and from the CPE. The basic forwarding state in
upstream direction (i.e. access to network) and downstream
direction (i.e. network to access) fundamentally consists of
session identification and one or more actions. Following shows a
logical representation of a directive from CP to UP to install
basic forwarding state on the UP for fixed L2 access (i.e. access
from DSLAM or OLTs over Ethernet).
o Direction Upstream - Access to Network:
. Subscriber-session identification: Port/VLAN-tag(s)
+ subscriber-MAC + Session IP address + PPPoE
Session-ID
. Action: remove encapsulation (i.e. Ethernet and
PPPoE/PPP headers), apply policer, do IP FIB
lookup, forward to network.
o Direction Downstream - Network to Access:
. Subscriber-session identification: IP address
. Action: apply subscriber-shaper, build
encapsulation using (PPPoE session-id and
Port/VLAN-tag(s)+ subscriber-MAC), forward to
access.
Examples of actions and processing related to forwarding and
traffic management include encapsulation/decapsulation, table
lookups, drop, forward, mirror, count, redirect, police, classify,
queue, shape etc.
. In addition to packet-matching rules and actions to setup data-
path on the UP, the "CUPS protocol" MUST allow CP to specify
subscriber routing and IP interface related information. This
includes the following:
o Aggregate IPv4 subnets and IPv6 prefixes that are used for
assigning addresses or prefixes (e.g. IPv6 delegated-
prefix) to subscribers on a UP. These are announced in
routing by the UP to draw downstream traffic.
o UE's IP address and subnet mask.
o Default gateway IP address within the subscriber subnets.
This is used to draw upstream traffic from the CPEs and
the UP is required to respond to ICMP requests for this
address from the CPEs.
o Subnets for network behind a CPE (also known as framed-
routes).
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. The "CUPS protocol" MUST provide support for CP to specify session
level HQOS related information to the UP. A common QOS hierarchy
on BNG consists of at least a QoS layer per access-node, and per
CPE. "CUPS protocol" MUST provide support for CP to specify QoS
parameters (e.g. rates, queues, markings) and the QoS hierarchy to
which the CPE belongs, to the UP. The CP may choose to signal this
via a QoS policy that is locally pre-configured on the UP. "CUPS
protocol" MUST provide support for CP to specify HQOS-policy that
the session is associated with.
. "CUPS protocol" MUST support asynchronous session level event
notifications from UP to CP. Session level asynchronous
notifications include:
o Periodic usage-reports
o Threshold based usage-reports
o Inactivity timeout
o Subscriber unreachability detection
. "CUPS protocol" MUST support asynchronous node level event
notifications from UP to CP. Example includes switchover
notification in case ports or UP failures when node level
redundancy is enabled.
2.2. Extensibility
. "CUPS protocol" MUST support exchange of software version and
feature capabilities when a node level association is setup
between a CP and UP.
. "CUPS protocol" MUST encode information in messages as TLVs.
. "CUPS protocol" MUST allow extension to defined Information
Elements (IEs) i.e. it MUST allow adding new information to
existing IEs while maintaining backwards compatibility.
. "CUPS protocol" MUST allow addition of new IEs exchanged in
protocol messages.
. "CUPS protocol" MUST support vendor specific IEs (modelled as
TLVs) by carving out TLV space for vendor specific extensions.
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. "CUPS protocol" processing on UP MUST support graceful handling
when an unknown TLV is received. The UP MUST ignore unknown TLV
and continue with normal message processing. This ensures the
CP MAY send non-mandatory TLVs to the UP. However, CP MUST only
send mandatory TLVs if it knows the UP will accept it (based on
local configuration or based on capability exchange during
association setup). A TLV is considered mandatory if session
state cannot be installed or updated without it.
2.3. Scalability and Performance
. A single CP VNF can control multiple UP nodes. Each UP can
support its maximum scale of subscriber sessions as allowed by
its data-plane. External control plane running as a VNF can
horizontally scale-out as needed with the growth in CUPS
system-wide subscriber scale. In typical deployments CP may be
centralized whereas the UPs may be distributed, with multiple
L2 or L3 hops between CP and UPs. There are scenarios where a
large number of sessions may be getting created or deleted
close in time via "CUPS protocol". It is important that latency
to bring subscribers online is minimized. The transport
protocol chosen for "CUPS protocol" MUST NOT suffer from head-
of-line (HOL) blocking where transport of messages related to
one subscriber can be adversely impacted by messages being
exchanged for other subscribers.
. "CUPS protocol" MUST limit chattiness by minimizing number of
messages required to create fully functional subscriber on the
UP with complete forwarding, traffic management, HQOS, and
routing state. Ideally, a single request/response message
exchange between CP and UP should be able to create subscriber
with all the required state in the data-plane. The "CUPS
protocol" message that creates the subscriber session MUST
therefore be able to signal IEs for all the required subscriber
state.
. To further reduce latency the protocol MUST be binary encoded.
. "CUPS protocol" MUST allow dynamic scale-out for control plane
VNF with the growth in subscriber scale of the CUPS system, as
more UPs are added to the CUPS system or more ports are enabled
on a UP in a CUPS system.
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. The "CUPS Protocol" MUST allow mechanism to provide balancing
of processing load amongst compute resources of control-plane
VNF that supports dynamic scale-out.
. "CUPS protocol" SHOULD support signaling of overload state and
optionally overload mitigation parameters from UP to CP, when
UP determines the incoming signaling from CP is exceeding (or
about to exceed) its nominal processing capacity. Overload
mitigation can include a temporary message throttling on CP
towards UP. Mitigation parameters can include message rate and
validity time for the specified rate.
2.4. Transport Protocol
. As mentioned in section 2.3, the transport protocol used for
"CUPS protocol" MUST NOT suffer from HOL blocking.
Therefore, TCP is not an option for the transport protocol.
. Ideally, the transport protocol SHOULD preserve message
boundary with datagram semantics and should be available or
easily implementable on any simple forwarding devices.
Therefore, UDP is the preferred option.
. "CUPS protocol" MUST therefore support reliability and
ordering for exchanged messages. The reliability and
ordering can be based on request/response with message
sequencing and re-transmissions.
2.5. In-band Control Channel Requirements
. "CUPS protocol" MUST support setting up of control channel
between UP and CP for transporting in-band control messages
(e.g. DHCPv4/v6 and PPPoE) received on the UP (from CPEs) to
the CP, and for return messages sent from CP to the UP
(destined to CPEs).
. There can be a L3 network between CP and UPs. Therefore, L3
tunneling is required between CP and UP to carry messages for
in-band control plane protocols. "CUPS protocol" MUST support
exchange of tunnel identifiers between CP and UP.
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. Because L2 access setup is in-band, control plane messages will
arrive on the UP before any per-session state is learned.
Therefore, "CUPS protocol" MUST support messages and
information exchange to install forwarding state related to in-
band control plane messages that do not match any existing
subscriber session. These messages should be forwarded to the
CP over a common default control channel.
. The in-band control channel setup by "CUPS protocol" MUST have
support for UP to pass access-circuit identifier over which the
signaling messages are received from the CPEs. Based on type of
access, access-circuit identifier can include port/VLAN tags or
tunnel identifiers which includes tunnel endpoint IPs and de-
multiplexers such as GTP TEID, MPLS labels, L2TP tunnel-id etc.
"CUPS protocol" MUST support setting up logically separate
control channels for in-band control messages per access-
circuit.
. In case of fixed-access CPEs with Ethernet based network
between access-nodes and BNG, the control messages are received
in Ethernet frames. The Ethernet frame carrying the control
messages received on UP MUST be carried over the control
channel to the CP, as outlined in [CUPS]. In case of fixed-
wireless access, control messages (e.g. DHCPv4 and DHCPv6) are
received on the UP over GTP-u tunnel from the RAN. The GTP-u
tunnel directly carries IP payload. Therefore, control channel
setup via "CUPS protocol" MUST support transporting both
Ethernet and IP payloads.
. "CUPS protocol" MUST provide support for CP to specify the
control protocols that should be forwarded by the UP over in-
band control channel to the CP.
. The "CUPS protocol" SHOULD have support for CP to specify rate-
limits for specific control protocols and optionally specific
messages within a control protocol, that the UP should enforce.
. The "CUPS protocol" SHOULD provide support for CP to direct the
UP to drop certain control messages received on a particular
access-circuit.
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. The "CUPS protocol" SHOULD provide support for CP to prioritize
reception of certain control messages over others.
2.6. Resiliency
. "CUPS protocol" MUST allow support for both 1:1 (hot standby)
and N:M (warm standby) UP node level redundancy.
. "CUPS protocol" MUST provide support for CP to specify the
"redundancy domain" that a subscriber session is associated
with during session level state creation on the UP. The
"redundancy domain" is set of resources that share fate with
respect to switchover on failure, e.g. a set of VLANs on a
port, or a set of ports on a UP, or entire UP. "CUPS protocol"
MUST also provide support for CP to provide relevant parameters
to UP about the "redundancy domains". The UPs can then locally
preform failure detection and switchover for the redundancy
domains.
. The "CUPS protocol" MUST provide support for UP to notify the
CP about switchover event. This notification must be on the
granularity of "redundancy domain" on a UP.
. For warm standby redundancy, "CUPS protocol" MUST provide
support for CP to create session level state on the backup UP
node(s) for all subscribers associated with the impacted
"redundancy domain".
. "CUPS protocol" MUST support in-service software upgrade (ISSU)
on UPs. The protocol MUST provide support for UP to notify CP
when it is completed ISSU to the new software release.
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2.7. Security
"CUPS protocol" MUST be compatible with proven security mechanisms
such as IPSEC or DTLS to satisfy following security requirements:
. Data-integrity and confidentiality MUST be ensured for the
information exchanged via "CUPS protocol".
. Protection against man-in-the-middle attacks MUST be provided.
. Anti-replay protection MUST be provided.
3. "CUPS protocol" candidate
3GPP has defined PFCP (Packet Forwarding Control Protocol) in
[TS29244] as the interface between CP and UP for LTE gateways. This
protocol is suited for large scale state management between CP and
UP and can be extended for BNG providing converged access. The
protocol provides a good base for satisfying the requirements
outlined in this draft for BNG "CUPS protocol". Following are some
of the key attributes of this protocol/
. It supports management of forwarding and QOS enforcement state
on the UP from CP.
. It also supports usage reporting from UP to CP.
. It is over UDP transport and doesn't suffer from any HOL
blocking.
. It provides reliable operation based on request/response with
message sequencing and retransmissions.
. It provides support for graceful handling of overload on UP.
. The protocol is extensible and allows addition of new IEs.
. For fixed access BNG, the protocol requires simple extensions
in the form of additional IEs. The required extensions are
mainly due to fact that typically a fixed access BNG requires
tighter control over L2 behavior and manages access and
subscriber using L2 identifiers (such as VLANs and MAC
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addresses), whereas mobile access works in terms of L3, either
routed or tunneled.
. [TS29244] also describes an in-band signaling channel based on
GTP-u tunnel between CP and UP. GTP-u (GPRS Tunneling protocol
User Plane) is defined in 3GPP [TS29281] and defines a
tunneling protocol which carries IP payloads. The protocol runs
over a UDP/IP stack and uses UDP port number 2152. Data within
a tunnel can be multiplexed based on Tunnel Endpoint
Identifiers (TEIDs). The protocol supports optional sequence
numbers. The protocol supports extension headers to allow
development of new features. GTP-u tunnels are signaled between
CP and UP, and it is possible to associate filters to forward
or block certain control packets from UP to CP. The payload
type carried by GTP-u can be extended to Ethernet (via payload
type in extension header). The tunnel encapsulation can also be
extended by introducing an additional NSH (network services
header) to carry any required meta-data.
4. Security Considerations
For security between CP and UP, Network Domain Security (NDS) as
defined in [TS33210] can be considered. As per NDS, the network can
be split into security domains. Communication within a single
security domain is considered secure, and protocols can operate
without any additional security. When communication has to cross
security domains, then IPSEC can be used.
5. Management Interface Requirements
. The CP MUST provide a single point for management of "CUPS BNG"
system to the operator.
. Management interface for the CUPS system MUST provide support
for both configuration of UPs, and state retrieval. The
interface MUST minimally support BNG specific configuration and
state.
. Management interface SHOULD support transactional configuration
from CP to UPs, based on a well-defined data schema.
Transactional configuration may be achieved by editing a
candidate configuration on the UP which is subsequently
activated (commit) or by providing the whole transaction in a
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single command. In case UP data-stores are used, it MUST be
possible for the CP to lock a data-store for exclusive access.
. The management interface SHOULD support transaction
confirmation, where an unconfirmed transaction gets reverted
automatically after a timeout even if the transaction
succeeded. This is to avoid configuration errors where a valid
configuration breaks communication between UP and CP, requiring
on-site intervention.
. The management interface SHOULD support state retrieval based
on a well-defined data schema. This includes retrieval for any
state that is not signaled via the state control interface.
. The management interface SHOULD support unsolicited signaling
of state changes (events) from UP to CP i.e. SHOULD provide
telemetry for events. Even while state changes are sent
unsolicited, the CP SHOULD be able to subscribe to a specific
subset of state it is interested in.
. The management interface MUST provide security through an
existing mechanism such as (D)TLS or IPSEC to guarantee
confidentiality and authenticity and protect against replay and
man in the middle attacks.
6. IANA Considerations
None.
7. References
7.1. Normative References
[RFC2119] Bradner, S., "Key words for use in RFCs to Indicate
Requirement Levels", BCP 14, RFC 2119, March 1997.
[CUPS] Wadhwa, S. et al., "Architecture for control and user
plane separation on BNG, July 2019.
https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/draft-wadhwa-rtgwg-bng-
cups/
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[TS29244] 3GPP, "Interface between the Control Plane and the User
Plane Nodes", TS 29.244 15.2.0, June 2018,
https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/Sp
ecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=3111.
[TS29281] 3GPP, "General Packet Radio System (GPRS) Tunneling
Protocol User Plane (GTPv1-U)", TS 29.281 15.3.0, June
2018,
https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/Sp
ecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1699.
[TS33210] 3GPP, "Network Domain Security (NDS); IP network layer
security", TS 33.210 15.0.0, June 2018,
https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/
SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=2279.
7.2. Informative References
[RFC2131] Droms, R., "Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol", RFC
2131, DOI 10.17487/RFC2131, March 1997, https://www.rfc-
editor.org/info/rfc2131.
[RFC2516] Mamakos, L., Lidl, K., Evarts, J., Carrel, D., Simone,
D., and R. Wheeler, "A Method for Transmitting PPP Over
Ethernet (PPPoE)", RFC 2516, DOI 10.17487/RFC2516,
February 1999, https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc2516.
[RFC3315] Droms, R., Ed., Bound, J., Volz, B., Lemon, T., Perkins,
C., and M. Carney, "Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
for IPv6 (DHCPv6)", RFC 3315, DOI 10.17487/RFC3315, July
2003, https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc3315.
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Authors' Addresses
Sanjay Wadhwa
Nokia
777 East Middlefield Road
Mountain View
USA
Email: Sanjay.wadhwa@nokia.com
Wadhwa, et al. Expires September 11, 2019 [Page 17]
Internet-Draft Protocol Requirements for BNG CUPS March 2019
Killian De Smedt
Nokia
Copernicuslaan 50
Antwerp
Belgium
Email: Killian.de_smedt@nokia.com
Praveen Muley
Nokia
805. E. Middle Field Rd.
Mountain View, CA, 94043
USA
Email: praveen.muley@nokia.com
Rajesh Shinde
Reliance Jio Infocomm Ltd.
Reliance Corporate Park
Thane Belapur Road, Ghansoli
Navi Mumbai 400710
India
Email: Rajesh.A.Shinde@ril.com
Jonathan Newton
Vodafone
Waterside House
Bracknell
United Kingdom
Email: jonathan.newton@vodafone.com
Ryan Hoffman
TELUS
1525 10th Ave SW
Calgary, Alberta
Canada
Email: ryan.hoffman@telus.com
Wadhwa, et al. Expires September 11, 2019 [Page 18]
Internet-Draft Protocol Requirements for BNG CUPS March 2019
Subrat Pani
Juniper Networks
10 Technology Park Dr.
Westford, MA
USA
Email: spani@juniper.net
Wadhwa, et al. Expires September 11, 2019 [Page 19]
