Internet DRAFT - draft-wang-qirg-quantum-internet-use-cases
draft-wang-qirg-quantum-internet-use-cases
QIRG C. Wang
Internet-Draft A. Rahman
Intended status: Informational InterDigital Communications, LLC
Expires: November 6, 2020 R. Li
NICT
M. Aelmans
Juniper Networks
May 5, 2020
Applications and Use Cases for the Quantum Internet
draft-wang-qirg-quantum-internet-use-cases-06
Abstract
The Quantum Internet has the potential to improve Internet
application functionality by incorporating quantum information
technology into the infrastructure of the overall Internet. In this
document, we provide an overview of some applications expected to be
used on the Quantum Internet, and then categorize them using various
classification schemes. Some general requirements for the Quantum
Internet are also discussed. The intent of this document is to
provide a common understanding and framework of applications and use
cases for the Quantum Internet.
Status of This Memo
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document authors. All rights reserved.
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Table of Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Conventions used in this document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3. Terms and Acronyms List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4. Quantum Internet Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.1. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.2. Classification by Application Usage . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.2.1. Quantum Cryptography Applications . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.2.2. Quantum Sensor Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.2.3. Quantum Computing Applications . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.3. Control vs Data Plane Classification . . . . . . . . . . 7
5. Selected Quantum Internet Use Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.1. Secure Communication Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5.2. Distributed Quantum Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.3. Secure Quantum Computing with Privacy Preservation . . . 12
6. General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
8. IANA Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
9. Security Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
10. Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
11. Informative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Authors' Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1. Introduction
The Classical Internet has been constantly growing since it first
became commercially popular in the early 1990's. It essentially
consists of a large number of end-nodes (e.g., laptops, smart phones,
network servers) connected by routers. The end-nodes may run
applications that provide service for the end-users such as
processing and transmission of voice, video or data. The connections
between the various nodes in the Internet include Digital Subscriber
Lines (DSLs), fiber optics, coax cable and wireless that include
Bluetooth, WiFi, cellular (e.g., 3G, 4G, 5G), and satellite, etc.
Bits are transmitted across the Classical Internet in packets.
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Research and experimentation have picked up over the last few years
for developing a Quantum Internet [Wehner]. It is anticipated that
the Quantum Internet will provide intrinsic benefits such as better
end-to-end and network security. The Quantum Internet will also have
end-nodes, termed quantum end-nodes. Quantum end-nodes may be
connected by quantum repeaters/routers. These quantum end-nodes will
also run value-added applications which will be discussed later.
The connections between the various nodes in the Quantum Internet are
expected to be primarily fiber optics and free-space optics.
Photonic connections are particularly useful because light (photons)
is very suitable for physically encoding qubits. Unlike the
Classical Internet, qubits (and not classical bits or packets) are
expected to be transmitted across the Quantum Internet due to the
underlying physics. The Quantum Internet will operate according to
unique physical principles such as quantum superposition,
entanglement and teleportation [I-D.irtf-qirg-principles].
The Quantum Internet is not anticipated to replace the Classical
Internet. For instance, Local Operations and Classical Communication
(LOCC) operations [Chitambar] even rely on classical communications.
Instead the Quantum Internet will run in conjunction with the
Classical Internet to form a new Hybrid Internet. The process of
integrating the Quantum Internet with the classical Internet is
similar to, but with more profound implications, as the process of
introducing any new communication and networking paradigm into the
existing Internet. The intent of this document is to provide a
common understanding and framework of applications and use cases for
the Quantum Internet.
2. Conventions used in this document
The key words "MUST", "MUST NOT", "REQUIRED", "SHALL", "SHALL NOT",
"SHOULD", "SHOULD NOT", "RECOMMENDED", "MAY", and "OPTIONAL" in this
document are to be interpreted as described in [RFC2119].
3. Terms and Acronyms List
This document assumes that the reader is familiar with the quantum
information technology related terms and concepts that are described
in [I-D.irtf-qirg-principles]. In addition, the following terms and
acronyms are defined here for clarity:
o Bit - Binary Digit (i.e., fundamental unit of information in a
classical computer).
o Classical Internet - The existing, deployed Internet (circa 2020)
where bits are transmitted in packets between nodes to convey
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information. The Classical Internet supports applications which
may be enhanced by the Quantum Internet. For example, the end-to-
end security of a Classical Internet application may be improved
by secure communication setup using a quantum application.
o Hybrid Internet - The "new" or evolved Internet to be formed due
to a merger of the Classical Internet and the Quantum Internet.
o Local Operations and Classical Communication (LOCC) - A method
where: 1) local quantum operations (e.g., quantum measurement) are
performed at one quantum node A; 2) the quantum operation result
is sent to another quantum node B via classical communications; 3)
the quantum node B may also perform some local quantum operations
dependent on the received operation result from the quantum node
A. For example, LOCC can be used to transform entangled states
into other entangled states.
o Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum (NISQ) - NISQ was defined in
[Preskill] to represent a near-term era in quantum technology.
According to this definition, NISQ computers have two salient
features: (1) The size of NISQ computers range from 50 to a few
hundred qubits (i.e., intermediate-scale); and (2) Qubits in NISQ
computers have inherent errors and the control over them is
imperfect (i.e., noisy).
o Packet - Formatted unit of multiple related bits. The bits
contained in a packet may be classical bits, or the measured state
of qubits.
o Quantum End-node - An end-node hosts user applications and
interfaces with the rest of the Internet. Typically, an end-node
may serve in a client, server, or peer-to-peer role as part of the
application. If the end-node is part of the Quantum Network, it
must be able to generate/transmit and/or receive/process qubits.
A quantum end-node, if it has quantum memory and quantum computing
capabilities, can be regarded as a quantum computer. A quantum
end-node must also be able to interface to the Classical Internet
for control purposes and thus also be able to receive, process,
and transmit classical bits/packets.
o Quantum Computer (QC) - Compared to a quantum end-node, a QC has
more capabilities such as quantum memory and quantum circuits,
which are required for performing quantum computing tasks.
o Quantum Network - A new type of network enabled by quantum
information technology where qubits are transmitted between nodes
to convey information. (Note: qubits must be sent individually
and not in packets). The Quantum Network will use both quantum
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channels, and classical channels provided by the Classical
Internet.
o Quantum Internet - A network of quantum networks. The Quantum
Internet will be merged into the Classical Internet to form a new
Hybrid Internet. The Quantum Internet may either improve
classical applications or may enable new quantum applications.
o Qubit - Quantum Bit (i.e., fundamental unit of information in a
quantum computer). It is similar to a classic bit in that the
state of a qubit is either "0" or "1" after it is measured and is
denoted as its basis state |0> or |1>. However, the qubit is
different than a classic bit in that the qubit is in a linear
combination of both states before it is measured and termed to be
in superposition. The Degrees of Freedom (DOF) of a photon (e.g.,
polarization) or an electron (e.g., spin) can be used to encode a
qubit.
4. Quantum Internet Applications
4.1. Overview
The Quantum Internet is expected to be extremely beneficial for a
subset of existing and new applications. The expected applications
using Quantum Internet are still being developed as we are in the
formative stages of the Quantum Internet [Castelvecchi] [Wehner].
However, an initial (and non-exhaustive) list of the applications to
be supported on the Quantum Internet can be identified and classified
using two different schemes.
4.2. Classification by Application Usage
Applications may also be grouped by the usage that they serve into a
tripartite classification. Specifically, applications may be
classified according to the following usages:
o Quantum cryptography applications - Refers to the use of quantum
information technology to ensure secure communications (e.g.,
QKD).
o Quantum sensors applications - Refers to the use of quantum
information technology for supporting distributed sensors or
Internet of Things (IoT) devices (e.g., clock synchronization).
o Quantum computing applications - Refers to the use of quantum
information technology for supporting remote quantum computing
facilities (e.g., distributed quantum computing).
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This is a useful classification scheme as it can be easily understood
by both a technical and non-technical audience. Following are some
more details.
4.2.1. Quantum Cryptography Applications
Examples of quantum cryptography applications include quantum-based
secure communication setup and fast Byzantine negotiation.
1. Secure communication setup - Refers to secure cryptographic key
distribution between two or more end-nodes. The most well-known
method is referred to as Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) [Renner].
2. Fast Byzantine negotiation - Refers to a quantum network based
method for fast agreement in Byzantine negotiations [Fitzi].
This can be used for the popular financial blockchain feature as
well as other distributed computing features which use Byzantine
negotiations.
4.2.2. Quantum Sensor Applications
The main example of a quantum sensor applications is currently
network clock synchronization.
1. Network clock synchronization - Refers to a world wide set of
atomic clocks connected by the Quantum Internet to achieve an
ultra precise clock signal [Komar].
4.2.3. Quantum Computing Applications
Examples of quantum computing include distributed quantum computing
and secure quantum computing with privacy preservation.
1. Distributed quantum computing - Refers to a collection of remote
small capacity quantum computers (i.e., each supporting a few
qubits) that are connected and working together in a coordinated
fashion so as to simulate a virtual large capacity quantum
computer [Wehner].
2. Secure quantum computing with privacy preservation - Refers to
private, or blind, quantum computation, which provides a way for
a client to delegate a computation task to one or more remote
quantum computers without disclosing the source data to be
computed over [Fitzsimons].
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4.3. Control vs Data Plane Classification
The majority of routers currently used in the Classical Internet
separate control plane functionality and data plane functionality
for, amongst other reasons, stability, capacity and security. In
order to classify applications for the Quantum Internet, a somewhat
similar distinction can be made. Specifically some applications can
be classified as being responsible for initiating sessions and
performing other control plane functionality. Other applications
carry application or user data and can be classified as data plane
functionality.
Some examples of what may be called control plane applications in the
Classical Internet are Domain Name Server (DNS), Session Information
Protocol (SIP), and Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP).
Furthermore, examples of data plane applications are E-mail, web
browsing, and video streaming. Note that some applications may
require both control plane and data plane functionality. For
example, a Voice over IP (VoIP) application may use SIP to set up the
call and then transmit the VoIP user packets over the data plane to
the other party.
Similarly, nodes in the Quantum Internet applications may use the
same classification paradigm of control plane functionality versus
data plane functionality where:
o Control Plane - Network functions and processes that operate on
(1) control bits/packets or qubits (e.g., to setup up end-user
encryption); or (2) management bits/packets or qubits (e.g., to
configure nodes).
o Data Plane - Network functions and processes that operate on end-
user application bits/packets or qubits (e.g., voice, video,
data). Sometimes also referred to as the user plane.
5. Selected Quantum Internet Use Cases
The Quantum Internet will support a variety of applications and
deployment configurations. This section details a few key use cases
which illustrates the benefits of the Quantum Internet. In system
engineering, a use case is typically made up of a set of possible
sequences of interactions between nodes and users in a particular
environment and related to a particular goal. This will be the
definition that we use in this section.
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5.1. Secure Communication Setup
In this scenario, two banks (i.e., Bank #1 and Bank #2) need to have
secure communications for transmitting important financial
transaction records (see Figure 1). For this purpose, they first
need to securely exchange a classic secret cryptographic key (i.e., a
sequence of classical bits), which is triggered by an end-user banker
at Bank #1. This results in a source quantum node A at Bank #1 to
securely send a classic secret key to a destination quantum node B at
Bank #2. This is referred to as a secure communication setup. Note
that the quantum node A and B may be either a bare-bone quantum end-
node or a full-fledged quantum computer. This use case shows that
the Quantum Internet can be leveraged to improve the security of
Classical Internet applications of which the financial application
shown in Figure 1 is an example.
One requirement for this secure communication setup process is that
it should not be vulnerable to any classical or quantum computing
attack. This can be realized using QKD [ETSI-QKD-Interfaces]. QKD
can securely establish a secret key between two quantum nodes,
without physically transmitting it through the network and thus
achieving the required security. QKD is the most mature feature of
the quantum information technology, and has been commercially
deployed in small-scale and short-distance deployments. More QKD use
cases have been described in ETSI GS QKD 002 [ETSI-QKD-UseCases].
In general, QKD (e.g., [BB84]) without using entanglement works as
follows:
1. The source quantum node A (e.g. Alice) transforms the secret key
to qubits. Basically, for each classical bit in the secret key,
the source quantum node A randomly selects one quantum
computational basis and uses it to prepare/generate a qubit for
the classical bit.
2. The source quantum node A sends qubits to the destination quantum
node B (e.g. Bob) via quantum channel.
3. The destination quantum node receives qubits and measures them
based on its random quantum basis.
4. The destination node informs the source node of its random
quantum basis.
5. The source node informs the destination node which random quantum
basis is correct.
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6. Both nodes discard any measurement bit under different quantum
basis and store all remaining bits as the secret key.
It is worth noting that:
1. There are some entanglement-based QKD protocols such as
[Treiber], which work differently than above steps. The
entanglement-based schemes, where entangled states are prepared
externally to Alice and Bob, are not normally considered
"prepare-and-measure" as defined in [Wehner]; other entanglement-
based schemes, where entanglement is generated within Alice can
still be considered "prepare-and-measure"; send-and-return
schemes can still be "prepare-and-measure", if the information
content, from which keys will be derived, is prepared within
Alice before being sent to Bob for measurement.
2. There are many enhanced QKD protocols based on [BB84]. For
example, a series of loopholes have been identified due to the
imperfections of measurement devices; there are several solutions
to take into account these attacks such as measurement-device-
independent QKD [ZhangPeiyu]. These enhanced QKD protocol can
work differently than the steps of BB84 protocol [BB84].
3. For large-scale QKD, QKD Networks (QKDN) are required, which can
be regarded as a subset of a Quantum Internet. A QKDN may
consist of a QKD application layer, a QKD network layer, and a
QKD link layer [QinHao]. One or multiple trusted QKD relays
[ZhangQiang] may exist between the source quantum node A and the
destination quantum node B, which are connected by a QKDN.
Alternatively, a QKDN may rely on entanglement distribution and
entanglement-based QKD protocols; as a result, quantum-repeaters/
routers instead of trusted QKD relays are needed for large-scale
QKD.
As a result, the Quantum Internet in Figure 1 contains quantum
channels. And in order to support secure communication setup
especially in large-scale deployment, it also requires entanglement
generation and entanglement distribution
[I-D.van-meter-qirg-quantum-connection-setup], quantum repeaters/
routers, and/or trusted QKD relays.
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+---------------+
| End User |
|(e.g., Banking |
| Application) |
+---------------+
^
| User Interface
| (e.g., GUI)
V
+-----------------+ /--------\ +-----------------+
| |--->( Quantum )--->| |
| Source | ( Internet ) | Destination |
| Quantum | \--------/ | Quantum |
| Node A | | Node B |
| (e.g., Bank #1) | /--------\ | (e.g., Bank #2) |
| | ( Classical) | |
| |<-->( Internet )<-->| |
+-----------------+ \--------/ +-----------------+
Figure 1: Secure Communication Setup
5.2. Distributed Quantum Computing
In this scenario, Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum (NISQ) computers
distributed in different locations are available for sharing.
According to the definition in [Preskill], a NISQ computer can only
realize a small number of qubits and has limited quantum error
correction. In order to gain higher computation power before fully-
fledged quantum computers become available, NISQ computers can be
connected via classic and quantum channels. This scenario is
referred to as distributed quantum computing [Caleffi]
[Cacciapuoti01] [Cacciapuoti02]. This use case reflects the vastly
increased computing power which quantum computers as a part of the
Quantum Internet can bring, in contrast to classical computers in the
Classical Internet.
As an example, scientists can leverage these connected NISQ computer
to solve highly complex scientific computation problems such as
analysis of chemical interactions for medical drug development (see
Figure 2). In this case, qubits will be transmitted among connected
quantum computers via quantum channels, while classic control
messages will be transmitted among them via classical channels for
coordination and control purpose. Qubits from one NISQ computer to
another NISQ computer are very sensitive and cannot be lost. For
this purpose, quantum teleportation can be leveraged to teleport
sensitive data qubits from one quantum computer A to another quantum
computer B. Note that Figure 2 does not cover measurement-based
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distributed quantum computing, where quantum teleportation may not be
required.
Specifically, the following steps happen between A and B. In fact,
LOCC [Chitambar] operations are conducted at the quantum computer A
and B in order to achieve quantum teleportation as illustrated in
Figure 2.
1. The quantum computer A locally generates some sensitive data
qubits to be teleported to the quantum computer B.
2. A shared entanglement is established between the quantum computer
A and the quantum computer B (i.e., there are two entangled
qubits: |q1> at A and |q2> at B).
3. Then, the quantum computer A performs a Bell measurement of the
entangled qubit |q1> and the sensitive data qubit.
4. The result from this Bell measurement will be encoded in two
classical bits, which will be physically transmitted via a
classical channel to the quantum computer B.
5. Based on the received two classical bits, the quantum computer B
modifies the state of the entangled qubit |q2> in the way to
generate a new qubit identical to the sensitive data qubit at the
quantum computer A.
In Figure 2, the Quantum Internet contains quantum channels and
quantum repeaters/routers [I-D.irtf-qirg-principles]. This use case
needs to support entanglement generation in order to enable quantum
teleportation, entanglement distribution or quantum connection setup
[I-D.van-meter-qirg-quantum-connection-setup] in order to support
long-distance quantum teleportation.
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+-----------------+
| End-User |
|(e.g., Scientist)|
+-----------------+
^
|User Interface (e.g. GUI)
|
+------------------+-------------------+
| |
| |
V V
+----------------+ /--------\ +----------------+
| |--->( Quantum )--->| |
| | ( Internet ) | |
| Quantum | \--------/ | Quantum |
| Computer A | | Computer B |
| (e.g., Site #1)| /--------\ | (e.g., Site #2)|
| | ( Classical) | |
| |<-->( Internet )<-->| |
+----------------+ \--------/ +----------------+
Figure 2: Distributed Quantum Computing
5.3. Secure Quantum Computing with Privacy Preservation
Secure computation with privacy preservation refers to the scenario:
1. A client node with source data delegates the computation of the
source data to a remote computation node.
2. Furthermore, the client node does not want to disclose any source
data to the remote computation node and thus preserve the source
data privacy.
3. Note that there is no assumption or guarantee that the remote
computation node is a trusted entity from the source data privacy
perspective.
As an example illustrated in Figure 3, the client node could be a
virtual voice-controlled home assistant device like Amazon's Alexa
product. The remote computation node could be a quantum computer in
the cloud. A resident as an end-user uses voice to control the home
device. The home device captures voice-based commands from the end-
user. Then, the home device interfaces to a home quantum terminal
node (e.g., a home gateway), which interacts with the remote
computation node to perform computation over the captured voice-based
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commands. The home quantum terminal could be either a bare-bone
quantum end-node or a full-fledged quantum computer.
In this particular case, there is no privacy concern since the source
data (i.e., captured voice-based commands) will not be sent to the
remote computation node which could be compromised. Protocols
[Fitzsimons] for delegated quantum computing or blind quantum
computation can be leveraged to realize secure delegated computation
and guarantee privacy preservation simultaneously. Using delegated
quantum computing protocols, the client node does not need send the
source data but qubits with some measurement instructions to the
remote computation node (e.g., a quantum computer).
After receiving qubits and measurement instructions, the remote
computation node performs the following actions:
1. It first performs certain quantum operations on received qubits
and measure them according to received measurement instructions
to generate computation results (in classic bits).
2. Then it sends the computation results back to the client node via
classical channel.
3. In this process, the source data is not disclosed to the remote
computation node and the privacy is preserved.
In Figure 3, the Quantum Internet contains quantum channels and
quantum repeaters/routers for long-distance qubits transmission
[I-D.irtf-qirg-principles].
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+----------------+
| End-User |
|(e.g., Resident)|
+----------------+
^
| User Interface
| (e.g., voice commands)
V
+----------------+
| Home Device |
+----------------+
^
| Classic
| Channel
V
+----------------+ /--------\ +----------------+
| |--->( Quantum )--->| |
| Quantum | ( Internet ) | Remote |
| Terminal | \--------/ | Computation |
| Node | | Node |
| (e.g., Home | /--------\ | (e.g., QC |
| Gateway) | ( Classical) | in Cloud) |
| |<-->( Internet )<-->| |
+----------------+ \--------/ +----------------+
Figure 3: Secure Computation with Privacy Preservation
6. General Requirements
Quantum Technologies are steadily evolving and improving. Therefore,
it is hard to predict the timeline and future milestones of quantum
technologies as pointed out in [Grumbling] for quantum computing.
Currently, a NISQ computer can achieve fifty to hundreds of qubits
with some error rate. In fact, the error rates of two-qubit quantum
gates have decreased nearly in half every 1.5 years (for trapped ion
gates) to 2 years (for superconducting gates). The error rate also
increases as the number of qubits increases. For example, a current
20-qubit machine has a total error rate which is close to the total
error rate of a 7-year old two-qubit machine [Grumbling].
Although it is challenging to predict future progress of quantum
technologies, some general and functional requirements on the Quantum
Internet from the networking perspective, based on the above
applications and use cases, are identified as follows:
1. Methods for facilitating quantum applications to interact
efficiently with entanglement qubits are necessary in order for
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them to trigger distribution of designated entangled qubits to
potentially any other quantum node residing in the Quantum
Internet. To accomplish this specific operations must be
performed on entangled qubits (e.g., entanglement swapping,
entanglement distillation). Quantum nodes may be quantum end-
nodes, quantum repeaters/routers, and/or quantum computers.
2. Quantum repeaters/routers should support robust and efficient
entanglement distribution in order to extend and establish
entanglement connection between two quantum nodes. For achieving
this, it is required to first generate an entangled pair on each
hop of the path between these two nodes.
3. Quantum end-nodes must send additional information on classical
channels to aid in transmission of qubits across quantum
repeaters/receivers. This is because qubits are transmitted
individually and do not have any associated packet overhead which
can help in transmission of the qubit. Any extra information to
aid in routing, identification, etc., of the qubit must be sent
via classical channels.
7. Conclusion
This document provides an overview of some expected applications for
the Quantum Internet, and then details selected use cases. The
applications are first grouped by their usage which is a natural and
easy to understand classification scheme. The applications are then
classified as either control plane or data plane functionality as
typical for the classical Internet. This set of applications may, of
course, naturally expand over time as the Quantum Internet matures.
Finally, some general requirements for the Quantum Internet are also
provided.
This document can also serve as an introductory text to persons
interested in learning about the practical uses of the Quantum
Internet. Finally, it is hoped that this document will help guide
further research and development of the specific Quantum Internet
functionality required to implement the applications and uses cases
described herein. To this end, a few key requirements for the
Quantum Internet are specified.
8. IANA Considerations
This document requests no IANA actions.
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9. Security Considerations
This document does not define an architecture nor a specific protocol
for the Quantum Internet. It focuses on detailing use cases and
describing typical Quantum Internet applications. However, some
useful observations can be made regarding security as follows.
It has been clearly identified that once large-scale quantum
computing becomes reality it will be able to theoretically break many
of the public-key (i.e., asymmetric) cryptosystems currently in use
because of the exponential increase of computing power with quantum
computing. This would negatively affect many of the security
mechanisms currently in use on the classic Internet. This has given
strong impetus for starting development of new cryptographic systems
that are secure against quantum computing attacks [NISTIR8240].
Paradoxically, development of a Quantum Internet will also mitigate
the threats posed by quantum computing attacks against public-key
cryptosystems. Specifically, the secure communication setup feature
of the Quantum Internet as described in Section 5.1 will be strongly
resistant to both classical and quantum computing attacks.
Finally, Section 5.3 provides a method to perform remote quantum
computing while preserving the privacy of the source data.
10. Acknowledgments
The authors want to thank Mathias VAN DEN BOSSCHE, Xavier de Foy,
Patrick Gelard, Wojciech Kozlowski, Rodney Van Meter, and Joseph
Touch for their very useful reviews and comments to the document.
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Authors' Addresses
Chonggang Wang
InterDigital Communications, LLC
1001 E Hector St
Conshohocken 19428
USA
Email: Chonggang.Wang@InterDigital.com
Akbar Rahman
InterDigital Communications, LLC
1000 Sherbrooke Street West
Montreal H3A 3G4
Canada
Email: rahmansakbar@yahoo.com
Ruidong Li
NICT
4-2-1 Nukui-Kitamachi
Koganei, Tokyo 184-8795
Japan
Email: lrd@nict.go.jp
Wang, et al. Expires November 6, 2020 [Page 19]
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Melchior Aelmans
Juniper Networks
Boeing Avenue 240
Schiphol-Rijk 1119 PZ
The Netherlands
Email: maelmans@juniper.net
Wang, et al. Expires November 6, 2020 [Page 20]
